Entomology and pest management /
Pedigo, Larry P.
Entomology and pest management / Larry P. Pedigo, Marlin E. Rice. - 6th ed. - Upper Saddle River, N.J. : Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009 - xxvi, 784 p., 10 p. ill. (some col.) ; 26 cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index
Brief contents
1 introduction 1
2 insect structures and life processes 35
3 insect classification 79
4 the insect life cycle 143
5 insect ecology 173
6 surveillance and sampling 209
7 economic decision levels for pest populations 253
8 pest management theory 285
9 management with natural enemies and other biological agents 309
10 ecological management of the crop environment 339
11 conventional insecticides for management 371
12 managing insects with resistant plants 435
13 management by modifying insect development and behavior 473
14 sterile-insect technique and other pest genetic tactics 503
15 the practice of insect pest management 529
16 managing ecological backlash 557
17 insect pest management case histories 589
Appendix 1: key to the orders of insecta 613
Appendix 2: list of some insects and related species alphabetized by common name 619
Appendix 3: world wide web sites of entomological resources 655
Glossary 711
Index 735
Contents
1 introduction 1
Insect abundance 1
Insect diversity 1
What an insect is 2
Other arthropods 3
Class crustacea 3
Class diplopoda 4
Class chilopoda 4
Class arachnida 5
What entomology is 8
Entomologists 10
Producers of entomological information and services 10
Users of entomological information and services 11
Relationships between insects and people 13
Brief history of relationships 13
Insects in antiquity 13
Success of insects 14
Prehistoric times 15
The rise of agriculture and civilization 16
Modern times 17
The ledger 18
Black ink: the benefits 18
Red ink: the losses 23
The balance sheet 27
Insect pest management 29
The concept of pest 30
The concept of pest status 32
2 insect structures and life processes 35
The insect body 35
General organization 35
Tagmosis and the body wall 35
Detail of the body wall 36
The head 38
Cranium 38
Mouthparts 39
Antennae 44
Eyes 46
The thorax 46
Legs 47
Wings 48
The abdomen 49
Maintenance and locomotion 50
Feeding and digestion 50
Feeding 50
The digestive system 51
Digestion 55
Nutrition 56
Excretion 56
The excretory system 57
Excretion 57
Other excretory modes 58
Circulation of blood 58
The circulatory system 58
Blood 59
Circulation 59
Respiration 59
The tracheal system 59
Respiratory process 62
Musculature and locomotion 62
Muscle system 62
Muscle function 64
Locomotion 65
Sensing the environment and integrating activities 67
Sense organs 68
Photoreceptors 68
Chemoreceptors 68
Mechanoreceptors 69
Other receptors 71
Nervous system 72
Central nervous system 72
Visceral nervous system 74
Nerve-impulse transmission and integration 74
Nerve-impulse transmission 74
Integration 76
Insect reproduction 76
The female system 76
The male system 77
3 insect classification 79
Objectives of classification 79
Elements of classification 81
General classification of insects 82
Subclass apterygota 83
Subclass pterygota 90
Suborder anisoptera-dragonflies 91
Suborder zygoptera-damselflies 92
Family acrididae-grasshoppers or locusts 92
Family tettigoniidae-longhorn grasshoppers and katydids 93
Family gryllidae-crickets 93
Family phasmatidae-walkingsticks 94
Family mantidae-mantids 94
Superfamily blattoidea-cockroaches 94
Family kalotermitidae-drywood termites 98
Family rhinotermitidae-subterranean termites 98
Family pediculidae-head and body lice 102
Family pthiridae-crab lice 104
Sucking lice of domestic animals 104
Family pentatomidae-stink bugs 106
Family coreidae-leaffooted bugs 107
Family lygaeidae-seed bugs 107
Family nabidae-damsel bugs 107
Family anthocoridae-pirate bugs 107
Family miridae-plant bugs 107
Family cicadidae-cicadas 108
Family cicadellidae-leafhoppers 108
Superfamily fulgoroidea, many families including fulgoridae-planthoppers 108
Family psyllidae-jumping plantlice 110
Family aleyrodidae-whiteflies 110
Family aphididae-aphids 110
Superfamily coccoidea-scale insects 110
Family carabidae-ground beetles 113
Family staphylinidae-rove beetles 113
Family scarabaeidae-scarab beetles 113
Family buprestidae-metallic wood borers 113
Family elateridae-click beetles 115
Family dermestidae-dermestids 116
Family coccinellidae-lady beetles 116
Family meloidae-blister beetles 117
Family cerambycidae-longhorned beetles 118
Family chrysomelidae-leaf beetles 118
Family curculionidae-weevils 118
Family scolytidae-bark beetles 118
Family tineidae-clothes moths and others 123
Family psychidae-bagworm moths 123
Family tortricidae-tortricid moths 123
Family pyralidae-snout and grass moths 124
Family papilionidae-swallowtail butterflies 124
Family nymphalidae-brushfooted butterflies 124
Family lasiocampidae-tent caterpillars and lappet moths 124
Family sphingidae-sphinx moths 125
Family noctuidae-noctuid moths 126
Family culicidae-mosquitoes 129
Family cecidomyiidae-gall midges 130
Family tabanidae-horse flies and deer flies 130
Family syrphidae-flower flies 130
Family tephritidae-fruit flies 130
Family muscidae-muscid flies 130
Family tachinidae-tachinid flies 131
Family tenthredinidae-tenthredinid sawflies 133
Family cephidae-stem sawflies 133
Family braconidae-braconids 133
Family ichneumonidae-ichneumons 135
Family trichogrammatidae-minute egg parasites 135
Family formicidae-ants 135
Family vespidae-vespid wasps 136
Family apidae-bumble bees, honey bees, and others 137
Mite and tick classification 138
Suborder mesostigmata 139
Suborder ixodida 139
Suborder prostigmata 140
Suborder astigmata 140
4 the insect life cycle 143
Reproduction and embryonic development 143
Types of reproduction 143
Fertilization 146
Development of the embryo 146
Postembryonic growth and development 149
Egg hatching 149
Growth of lmmatures 150
Metamorphosis 154
Terminology 156
Maturity 156
Emergence of the adult 156
Mating behavior 157
Oviposition 157
General models of the life cycle 159
The no-metamorphosis model-ametabolous development 160
The gradual-metamorphosis model-paurometabolous development 160
The incomplete-metamorphosis model-hemimetabolous development 160
The complete-metamorphosis model-holometabolous development 161
Insect seasonal cycles 164
Univoltine cycles 164
Multivoltine cycles 164
Delayed voltine cycles 168
Seasonal adaptations 169
Dormancy 169
Diapause 170
5 insect ecology 173
The ecological role of insect pests 174
The idea of populations 174
Ecosystems and agroecosystems 176
The ecological role of insect outbreaks 179
Dynamics of insect life systems 181
Determinants of insect abundance 181
Population change 183
Birth rate 184
Death rate 184
Movements 191
Effects of environment on insect development 198
Predicting biological events: the degree-day method 199
Degree-day programs in insect pest management 203
Regulation of insect populations 204
6 surveillance and sampling 209
Sampling units and samples 212
Sampling universe 212
Sampling techniques and sampling programs 213
Common sampling techniques in insect pest management 213
In situ counts 213
Knockdown 217
Netting 220
Trapping 222
Extraction from soil 232
Indirect techniques 234
Auxiliary survey equipment 235
The sampling program 235
Kinds of estimates 235
Absolute estimates 235
Relative estimates 236
Converting relative estimates to absolute estimates 237
Descriptive statistics 237
Criteria of estimates 241
Program dimensions 241
Insect stage 241
Number of sampling units 241
Time to sample 242
Pattern of sampling 242
Pest management scouts and scouting records 243
Alfalfa weevil sampling: an example 244
Sequential sampling 247
7 economic decision levels for pestpopulations 253
Concepts of economic levels 253
Economic damage and the damage boundary 254
Economic-injury level 255
Economic threshold 258
Calculation of economic decision levels 259
Dynamics of economic-injury levels 260
Market value (v) 262
Management costs (c) 263
Degree of injury per insect (i) 263
Stand reducers 264
Leaf-mass consumers 264
Assimilate sappers 264
Turgor reducers 265
Fruit feeders 265
Architecture modifiers 266
Injury measurements in eil calculations 267
Crop susceptibility to injury (d) 268
Time of injury 268
Plant part injured 268
Injury types 269
Intensity of injury 269
Environmental effects 271
Amount of damage avoided (k) 272
Experimental techniques to determine plant damage response 273
Observation 273
Modification of natural populations 273
Creating artificial populations 273
Injury simulation 276
Environmental eils 276
Assigning realistic management costs (c) 277
Reducing damage per pest (d) 279
Developing an environmentally responsible k value (k) 279
Manipulating other eil variables 279
Using economic levels 280
Implementation categories 280
No thresholds 280
Nominal thresholds 280
Simple thresholds 280
Comprehensive thresholds 281
Limitations of the eil concept 282
Conclusions 283
8 pest management theory 285
Historical highlights of pest technology 286
Pre-insecticide era 286
Insecticide era 288
Emergence of pest management 290
The concept of pest management 292
Definition and characteristics of pest management 292
Pest management strategies and tactics 293
Do-nothing strategy 293
Reduce-numbers strategy 294
Reduce-crop-susceptibility strategy 296
Combined strategies 297
Kinds of pests and likely strategies 297
Subeconomic pests 297
Occasional pests 298
Perennial and severe pests 300
Development of a pest management program 302
Information and techniques 302
Tactics 304
Putting it all together: systems 304
9 management with natural enemies and other biological agents 309
Brief history of biological control 310
The theory behind classical biological control 311
Agents of biological control 313
Parasites and parasitoids 313
Parasitoids 313
Insect parasitic nematodes 315
Nonbeneficial parasites 315
Predators 317
Pathogenic microorganisms 320
Bacteria 320
Viruses 323
Fungi 324
Biotechnology and the future of microbial insecticides 324
The practice of biological control 327
Introduction 327
Augmentation 330
Inundative releases 330
Inoculative releases 330
Environmental manipulations 332
Conservation of natural enemies 333
Conclusions 336
10 ecological management of the crop environment 339
Ecological management 340
Reducing average favorability of the ecosystem 342
Sanitation 342
Crop residue destruction and utilization 342
Elimination of animal wastes 345
Efficient storage and processing 345
Destruction or modification of alternate hosts and habitats 346
Tillage 348
Irrigation and water management 353
Disrupting continuity of pest requisites 356
Reduce continuity in space 356
Crop spacing 356
Crop location 357
Upset chronological continuity 358
Crop rotation 358
Crop fallowing 361
Disrupting crop and insect synchrony 361
Diverting pest populations away from the crop 363
Trap cropping 363
Strip harvesting 364
Intercropping 364
Reducing the impact of insect injury 366
Modify host tolerance 366
Modify harvest schedules 367
Conclusions 369
11 conventional insecticides for management 371
Insecticide names and formulas 372
Insecticide nomenclature 373
Chemical formulas 373
Survey of common insecticides 374
Pyrethroids 375
Third-generation pyrethroids 377
Fourth-generation pyrethroids 377
Carbamates 380
Organophosphates 381
Aliphatic derivatives 382
Phenyl derivatives 384
Heterocyclic derivatives 385
Neonicotinoids 387
Phenylpyrazoles 389
Pyrroles 390
Pyrazoles 390
Pyridazinones 390
Pyridine azomethines 391
Oxadiazines 391
Insect growth regulators 392
Repellents 392
Chlorinated hydrocarbons 392
Ddt and relatives 392
Hch and lindane 394
Cyclodienes 395
Polychloroterpenes 397
Botanicals 397
Pyrethrum 397
Azadiractins 398
Nicotine 398
D-limonene 399
Rotenon 399
Ryania 400
Sabadilla 400
Fumigants 400
Para-dichlorobenzene and naphthalene 401
Inorganic phosphides and phosphine 401
Methyl bromide 401
Chloropicrin 402
Oils 402
Other insecticides 402
Formamidines 402
Dinitrophenols 403
Organosulfurs and organotins 404
Inorganics 404
Insecticidal soaps 405
Chemicals used with insecticides 405
Synergists 405
Solvents 406
Diluents 406
Surfactants 406
Stickers 407
Deodorants 407
Insecticide formulations 407
Liquid formulations 407
Emulsifiable concentrates (ec or e) 407
Solutions (s) 407
Flowables (f or l) 408
Aerosols (a) 408
Liquefied gas (lg or f) 408
Dry formulations 408
Dusts (d) 408
Granules (g) 409
Wettable powders (wp or w) 409
Soluble powders (sp) 409
Dry flowables (df) 409
Water-soluble packets (wsp) 409
Poisonous baits (b) 409
Slow-release formulations (sr) 410
Insecticide toxicity 410
Insecticide modes of action 410
Nerve poisons 411
Muscle poisons 412
Physical toxicants 412
Toxicity to humans 412
Acute poisoning 412
Chronic poisoning 413
Estimation of toxicity to humans 413
Insecticide laws and regulations 417
Federal insecticide, fungicide, and rodenticide act 417
Fifra amended 418
Pesticide label regulations 419
Applicator certification 422
Regulating pesticides 422
Regulation of new pesticides 422
Regulating existing pesticides 424
Food quality protection act 425
Using insecticides for pest management 426
Effective use 426
Choosing an insecticide 426
Choosing a dosage 426
Timing of applications 427
Coverage and confinement of applications 427
Using insecticides safely 431
Conclusions 433
12 managing insects with resistant plants 435
Brief history 436
Insect and host-plant relationships 438
The insect aspect 438
Finding the general habitat 438
Finding the host plant 438
Accepting the plant as a proper host 438
Sufficiency of the plant for requisites 439
The plant aspect 439
Morphological characteristics 440
Physiological characteristics 440
Host-plant selection 440
Mechanisms of resistance 441
Nonpreference 442
Allelochemic nonpreference 442
Morphological nonpreference 442
Use of nonpreference 443
Antibiosis 443
Tolerance 444
Ecological resistance 446
Host evasion 446
Induced resistance 446
Host escape 447
Genetic nature of resistance 447
Epidemiological types of resistance 447
The gene-for-gene relationship 447
Vertical and horizontal types of resistance 448
Resistance classes based on mode of inheritance 449
Oligogenic resistance 450
Polygenic resistance 450
Cytoplasmic resistance 450
Factors mediating the expression of resistance 450
Physical factors 450
Temperature 450
Light intensity 450
Soil fertility 451
Biological factors 451
Biotypes 452
Plant age 452
Traditional development of insect resistant varieties 453
Biotechnology and resistant-variety development 453
Basics of genetic engineering 454
Dna: the blueprint of life 454
Cutting and splicing chromosomes 454
Resistant plants from recombinant dna technology 454
Deployment of engineered resistant plant varieties 459
Insect resistance management 461
Transgenic plants as trap crops 462
Benefits and risks of transgenic crops 462
Successful uses of insect-resistant cultivars 464
Resistance to hessian fly 464
Resistance to european corn borer 465
Resistance to spotted alfalfa aphid 466
Resistance to wheat stem sawfly 466
Resistance to the greenbug 467
Use of plant resistance in insect pest management 468
Plant resistance as the sole or primary tactic 468
Plant resistance integrated with other tactics 469
Conclusions 469
13 management by modifying insect development and behavior 473
Disrupting normal growth and development 474
The basis for igr development 474
Functions of the principal growth hormones 474
Experimental modification of growth hormones 475
Hormone mimics 475
Synthetic hormones 476
Other potential igrs 476
Practical igrs 477
Methoprene 478
Hydroprene 478
Kinoprene 478
Pyriproxyfen 479
Diflubenzuron 479
Lufenuron 479
Buprofezin 481
Hexaflumuron 481
Novaluron 482
Tebufenozide 483
Methoxyfenozide 484
Halofenozide 484
Compatibility of igrs with other tactics 484
Modifying behavior patterns 485
Tactics involving insect attraction 485
Use of pheromones in attraction 485
Pheromones in sampling and detection 487
Pheromones used in attract-and-kill programs 489
Mating disruption by air permeation 490
Use of traditional baits 495
Insect repellents 497
Traditional repellents 497
Plant allomones as repellents 498
Epideictic pheromones as repellents 499
Integration of behavior modification with other tactics 499
Conclusions 500
14 sterile-insect technique and other pest genetic tactics 503
The sterile-insect technique 504
Sit theoretical background 504
Circumstances for application 506
Sterilizing insects in a natural population 507
Methods of sterilization 507
Ionizing radiation 509
Chemosterilization 510
Sterile-insect release programs 511
Screwworm eradication and suppression 511
Tropical fruit fly programs 514
Other insects 515
Requirements and limitations of sterile-insect programs 519
Other genetic tactics 520
Conditional lethal mutations 521
Inherited sterility 522
Hybrid sterility 523
Cytoplasmic incompatibility 524
Chromosomal rearrangements 524
Meiotic drive mechanisms 525
Replacement by innocuous forms 526
Use of molecular genetic techniques 526
Conclusions 526
15 the practice of insect pest management 529
Concepts of integration 529
Basis for integration 530
Preventive practice 531
Lowering the pest's general equilibrium position 531
Raising the level at which economic damage occurs 532
Pesticides not recommended as a preventive tactic 534
Plant and animal quarantine as a preventive tactic 535
Therapeutic practice 537
Use of therapeutics in insect pest management 538
Development of an integrated management program 538
Selection of tactics 539
The management plan and crop values 539
An integrated management program for the bean leaf beetle 540
Areawide pest technology 543
The boll weevil eradication program 544
Pilot project 546
Current program 546
Other areawide programs 548
Site-specific farming and pest management practice 548
Conclusions 552
16 managing ecological backlash 557
Resistance of populations to pest management tactics 557
Principles of resistance 558
Resistance to conventional insecticides 559
Magnitude of the insecticide resistance problem 559
Mechanisms of resistance to insecticides 562
Cross-resistance 564
Dangers and costs of the resistance phenomenon 565
Resistance to other pest management tactics 566
Resistance to insect growth regulators 566
Resistance to microbial insecticides 566
Resistance to parasites 568
Virulence to resistant plants 568
Resistance to crop rotations 569
Resistance to sterile-male releases 570
Resistance to pheromones 570
Management of resistance 570
Conditions that promote resistance 571
Slowing the development of resistance 571
Management by moderation 572
Management by saturation 572
Management by multiple attack 573
Pest population resurgence and replacement 574
Dynamics of resurgence and replacement 574
Upsets from reduction of natural enemies 575
Susceptibility of arthropod natural enemies to insecticides 575
Paradigm for resurgence 576
Examples of resurgence from natural-enemy reduction 576
Paradigm for pest replacement 576
Examples of replacement from natural-enemy reduction 578
Favorable effects of pesticides on arthropod physiology and behavior 579
Upsets from removal of competitors 580
Managing resurgence and replacement 580
Avoiding hormoligosis 580
Avoiding natural-enemy destruction 580
Physiological selectivity 581
Ecological selectivity 581
Inoculative releases of natural enemies 582
Other forms of ecological backlash 584
Enhanced microbial degradation 584
Upsets in community balance 585
Conclusions 585
17 insect pest management case histories 589
Insect pest management in a low-value production system 589
Pest life cycle and biology 589
Injury and interactions with the tree 590
Beetle outbreaks 590
Pest management program for spruce bark beetle 590
Insect pest management in moderate-value production systems 592
Insect pest management in cotton 592
Historical background of cotton-insect control 593
Insect pest management in texas cotton 594
Insect pest management in corn 597
Life history and injury from key pests 598
Historical aspects of pest control 600
Insect pest management program for corn in the northcentral united states 603
Insect pest management in high-value production systems 603
Insect pest management in potatoes 604
Pest biology 604
Early control efforts 605
Insect pest management in the northern united states 605
Insect pest management in apples 606
Key pests and injury 607
Secondary pests and injury 607
Insect pest management in commercial apple orchards 608
Conclusions 611
Appendix 1: key to the orders of insecta 613
Appendix 2: list of some insects and related species alphabetized by common name 619
Appendix 3: world wide web sites of entomological resources 655
Glossary 711
Index 735
List of diagnostic boxes
Common name scientific name box page
Alfalfa caterpillar colias euytheme boisduval 8.2 298
Alfalfa weevil hypera postica (gyllenhal) 6.5 246
Angoumois grain moth sitotroga cerealella (olivier) 10.4 350
Anopheles mosquitoes anopheles species 14.8 525
Armyworm pseudaletia unipuncta (haworth) 10.1 341
Asian longhorned beetle anoplophora glabripennis (motschulsky) 15.1 536
Bean leaf beetle cerotoma trifurcata (forster) 10.8 364
Black blister beetle epicauta pennsylvanica (degeer) 4.4 167
Black cutworm agrotis ipsilon (hufnagel) 7.1 265
Boll weevil anthonomus grandis grandis (boheman) 10.2 343
Cabbage looper trichoplusia ni (hübner) 14.7 524
Cereal leaf beetle oulema melanopus (linnaeus) 10.5 355
Codling moth cydia pomonella (linnaeus) 15.5 552
Colorado potato beetle leptinotarsa decemlineata (say) 5.4 191
Common green lacewing chrysoperla carnea (stephens) 9.4 331
Corn earworm heliothis zea (boddie) 17.1 596
Corn leaf aphid rhopalosiphum maidis (fitch) 8.3 299
Corn rootworms diabrotica species 10.6 359
Cottony cushion scale icerya purchasi maskell 9.1 312
Desert locust schistocerca gregaria (forskgål) 5.6 196
Emerald ash borer agrilus planipennis (fairmaire) 3.2 115
European corn borer ostrinia nubilalis (hübner) 17.2 599
Face fly musca autumnalis degeer 6.3 217
Fall armyworm spodoptera frugiperda (smith) 5.8 198
Fruit fly drosophila melanogaster (meigen) 14.3 510
Forest tent caterpillar malacosoma disstria (hübner) 5.3 188
German cockroach blattella germanica (linnaeus) 8.1 286
Glassywinged sharpshooter homalodisca coagulata (say) 15.2 537
Green cloverworm hypena scabra (fabricius) 8.4 300
Green stink bug acrosternum hilare (say) 4.3 152
Gypsy moth lymantria dispar (linnaeus) 6.2 211
Hessian fly mayetiola destructor (say) 12.2 448
Honey bee apis mellifera linnaeus 4.1 145
Horn fly haematobia irritans (linnaeus) 14.5 521
Horse flies/deer flies tabanus and chrysops species 6.4 225
House fly musca domestica linnaeus 14.2 509
Imported fire ants solenopsis richteri forel 6.1 210
solenopsis invicta buren
Japanese beetle popillia japonica newman 9.3 322
Lady beetles many coccinellid species 9.2 319
Mediterranean fruit fly ceratitis capitata (wiedemann) 14.4 520
Mexican bean beetle epilachna varivestis mulsant 9.5 334
Monarch butterfly danaus plexippus (linnaeus) 5.5 195
Multicolored asian harmonia axyridis (pallas) 3.3 117 lady beetle
Native elm bark beetle hylurgopinus opaculus (leconte) 10.3 346
Painted lady butterfly vanessa cardui (linnaeus) 5.9 201
Pink bollworm pectinophora gossypiella (saunders) 14.6 522
Potato leafhopper empoasca fabae (harris) 7.3 275
Redlegged grasshopper melanoplus femurrubrum (degeer) 5.1 174
Russian wheat aphid diuraphis noxia (mordvilko) 15.3 550
San jose scale quadraspidiotus perniciosus (comstock) 17.3 610
Screwworm cochliomyia hominivorax (coquerel) 14.1 504
Seedcorn maggot delia platura (meigen) 4.5 170
Silkworm bombyx mori (linnaeus) 13.1 486
Soybean aphid aphis glycines matsumura 3.1 111
Soybean looper pseudoplusia includens (walker) 7.2 275
Spotted alfalfa aphid therioaphis maculata (buckton) 12.3 467
Spruce budworm choristoneura fumiferana (clemens) 5.2 185
Sweetpotato whitefly bemisia tabaci gennadius 15.4 551
Tsetse flies glossina species 4.2 151
Twospotted spider mite tetranychus urticae koch 16.1 579
Velvetbean caterpillar anticarsia gemmatalis (hübner) 5.7 197
Wireworms numerous species 10.7 360
Woolly apple aphid eriosoma lanigerum (hausmann) 12.1 437
9780135132951 0135132959
Insect pests--Control.
Insect pests.
Insects.
Entomology.
632/.7 / P3717
Entomology and pest management / Larry P. Pedigo, Marlin E. Rice. - 6th ed. - Upper Saddle River, N.J. : Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009 - xxvi, 784 p., 10 p. ill. (some col.) ; 26 cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index
Brief contents
1 introduction 1
2 insect structures and life processes 35
3 insect classification 79
4 the insect life cycle 143
5 insect ecology 173
6 surveillance and sampling 209
7 economic decision levels for pest populations 253
8 pest management theory 285
9 management with natural enemies and other biological agents 309
10 ecological management of the crop environment 339
11 conventional insecticides for management 371
12 managing insects with resistant plants 435
13 management by modifying insect development and behavior 473
14 sterile-insect technique and other pest genetic tactics 503
15 the practice of insect pest management 529
16 managing ecological backlash 557
17 insect pest management case histories 589
Appendix 1: key to the orders of insecta 613
Appendix 2: list of some insects and related species alphabetized by common name 619
Appendix 3: world wide web sites of entomological resources 655
Glossary 711
Index 735
Contents
1 introduction 1
Insect abundance 1
Insect diversity 1
What an insect is 2
Other arthropods 3
Class crustacea 3
Class diplopoda 4
Class chilopoda 4
Class arachnida 5
What entomology is 8
Entomologists 10
Producers of entomological information and services 10
Users of entomological information and services 11
Relationships between insects and people 13
Brief history of relationships 13
Insects in antiquity 13
Success of insects 14
Prehistoric times 15
The rise of agriculture and civilization 16
Modern times 17
The ledger 18
Black ink: the benefits 18
Red ink: the losses 23
The balance sheet 27
Insect pest management 29
The concept of pest 30
The concept of pest status 32
2 insect structures and life processes 35
The insect body 35
General organization 35
Tagmosis and the body wall 35
Detail of the body wall 36
The head 38
Cranium 38
Mouthparts 39
Antennae 44
Eyes 46
The thorax 46
Legs 47
Wings 48
The abdomen 49
Maintenance and locomotion 50
Feeding and digestion 50
Feeding 50
The digestive system 51
Digestion 55
Nutrition 56
Excretion 56
The excretory system 57
Excretion 57
Other excretory modes 58
Circulation of blood 58
The circulatory system 58
Blood 59
Circulation 59
Respiration 59
The tracheal system 59
Respiratory process 62
Musculature and locomotion 62
Muscle system 62
Muscle function 64
Locomotion 65
Sensing the environment and integrating activities 67
Sense organs 68
Photoreceptors 68
Chemoreceptors 68
Mechanoreceptors 69
Other receptors 71
Nervous system 72
Central nervous system 72
Visceral nervous system 74
Nerve-impulse transmission and integration 74
Nerve-impulse transmission 74
Integration 76
Insect reproduction 76
The female system 76
The male system 77
3 insect classification 79
Objectives of classification 79
Elements of classification 81
General classification of insects 82
Subclass apterygota 83
Subclass pterygota 90
Suborder anisoptera-dragonflies 91
Suborder zygoptera-damselflies 92
Family acrididae-grasshoppers or locusts 92
Family tettigoniidae-longhorn grasshoppers and katydids 93
Family gryllidae-crickets 93
Family phasmatidae-walkingsticks 94
Family mantidae-mantids 94
Superfamily blattoidea-cockroaches 94
Family kalotermitidae-drywood termites 98
Family rhinotermitidae-subterranean termites 98
Family pediculidae-head and body lice 102
Family pthiridae-crab lice 104
Sucking lice of domestic animals 104
Family pentatomidae-stink bugs 106
Family coreidae-leaffooted bugs 107
Family lygaeidae-seed bugs 107
Family nabidae-damsel bugs 107
Family anthocoridae-pirate bugs 107
Family miridae-plant bugs 107
Family cicadidae-cicadas 108
Family cicadellidae-leafhoppers 108
Superfamily fulgoroidea, many families including fulgoridae-planthoppers 108
Family psyllidae-jumping plantlice 110
Family aleyrodidae-whiteflies 110
Family aphididae-aphids 110
Superfamily coccoidea-scale insects 110
Family carabidae-ground beetles 113
Family staphylinidae-rove beetles 113
Family scarabaeidae-scarab beetles 113
Family buprestidae-metallic wood borers 113
Family elateridae-click beetles 115
Family dermestidae-dermestids 116
Family coccinellidae-lady beetles 116
Family meloidae-blister beetles 117
Family cerambycidae-longhorned beetles 118
Family chrysomelidae-leaf beetles 118
Family curculionidae-weevils 118
Family scolytidae-bark beetles 118
Family tineidae-clothes moths and others 123
Family psychidae-bagworm moths 123
Family tortricidae-tortricid moths 123
Family pyralidae-snout and grass moths 124
Family papilionidae-swallowtail butterflies 124
Family nymphalidae-brushfooted butterflies 124
Family lasiocampidae-tent caterpillars and lappet moths 124
Family sphingidae-sphinx moths 125
Family noctuidae-noctuid moths 126
Family culicidae-mosquitoes 129
Family cecidomyiidae-gall midges 130
Family tabanidae-horse flies and deer flies 130
Family syrphidae-flower flies 130
Family tephritidae-fruit flies 130
Family muscidae-muscid flies 130
Family tachinidae-tachinid flies 131
Family tenthredinidae-tenthredinid sawflies 133
Family cephidae-stem sawflies 133
Family braconidae-braconids 133
Family ichneumonidae-ichneumons 135
Family trichogrammatidae-minute egg parasites 135
Family formicidae-ants 135
Family vespidae-vespid wasps 136
Family apidae-bumble bees, honey bees, and others 137
Mite and tick classification 138
Suborder mesostigmata 139
Suborder ixodida 139
Suborder prostigmata 140
Suborder astigmata 140
4 the insect life cycle 143
Reproduction and embryonic development 143
Types of reproduction 143
Fertilization 146
Development of the embryo 146
Postembryonic growth and development 149
Egg hatching 149
Growth of lmmatures 150
Metamorphosis 154
Terminology 156
Maturity 156
Emergence of the adult 156
Mating behavior 157
Oviposition 157
General models of the life cycle 159
The no-metamorphosis model-ametabolous development 160
The gradual-metamorphosis model-paurometabolous development 160
The incomplete-metamorphosis model-hemimetabolous development 160
The complete-metamorphosis model-holometabolous development 161
Insect seasonal cycles 164
Univoltine cycles 164
Multivoltine cycles 164
Delayed voltine cycles 168
Seasonal adaptations 169
Dormancy 169
Diapause 170
5 insect ecology 173
The ecological role of insect pests 174
The idea of populations 174
Ecosystems and agroecosystems 176
The ecological role of insect outbreaks 179
Dynamics of insect life systems 181
Determinants of insect abundance 181
Population change 183
Birth rate 184
Death rate 184
Movements 191
Effects of environment on insect development 198
Predicting biological events: the degree-day method 199
Degree-day programs in insect pest management 203
Regulation of insect populations 204
6 surveillance and sampling 209
Sampling units and samples 212
Sampling universe 212
Sampling techniques and sampling programs 213
Common sampling techniques in insect pest management 213
In situ counts 213
Knockdown 217
Netting 220
Trapping 222
Extraction from soil 232
Indirect techniques 234
Auxiliary survey equipment 235
The sampling program 235
Kinds of estimates 235
Absolute estimates 235
Relative estimates 236
Converting relative estimates to absolute estimates 237
Descriptive statistics 237
Criteria of estimates 241
Program dimensions 241
Insect stage 241
Number of sampling units 241
Time to sample 242
Pattern of sampling 242
Pest management scouts and scouting records 243
Alfalfa weevil sampling: an example 244
Sequential sampling 247
7 economic decision levels for pestpopulations 253
Concepts of economic levels 253
Economic damage and the damage boundary 254
Economic-injury level 255
Economic threshold 258
Calculation of economic decision levels 259
Dynamics of economic-injury levels 260
Market value (v) 262
Management costs (c) 263
Degree of injury per insect (i) 263
Stand reducers 264
Leaf-mass consumers 264
Assimilate sappers 264
Turgor reducers 265
Fruit feeders 265
Architecture modifiers 266
Injury measurements in eil calculations 267
Crop susceptibility to injury (d) 268
Time of injury 268
Plant part injured 268
Injury types 269
Intensity of injury 269
Environmental effects 271
Amount of damage avoided (k) 272
Experimental techniques to determine plant damage response 273
Observation 273
Modification of natural populations 273
Creating artificial populations 273
Injury simulation 276
Environmental eils 276
Assigning realistic management costs (c) 277
Reducing damage per pest (d) 279
Developing an environmentally responsible k value (k) 279
Manipulating other eil variables 279
Using economic levels 280
Implementation categories 280
No thresholds 280
Nominal thresholds 280
Simple thresholds 280
Comprehensive thresholds 281
Limitations of the eil concept 282
Conclusions 283
8 pest management theory 285
Historical highlights of pest technology 286
Pre-insecticide era 286
Insecticide era 288
Emergence of pest management 290
The concept of pest management 292
Definition and characteristics of pest management 292
Pest management strategies and tactics 293
Do-nothing strategy 293
Reduce-numbers strategy 294
Reduce-crop-susceptibility strategy 296
Combined strategies 297
Kinds of pests and likely strategies 297
Subeconomic pests 297
Occasional pests 298
Perennial and severe pests 300
Development of a pest management program 302
Information and techniques 302
Tactics 304
Putting it all together: systems 304
9 management with natural enemies and other biological agents 309
Brief history of biological control 310
The theory behind classical biological control 311
Agents of biological control 313
Parasites and parasitoids 313
Parasitoids 313
Insect parasitic nematodes 315
Nonbeneficial parasites 315
Predators 317
Pathogenic microorganisms 320
Bacteria 320
Viruses 323
Fungi 324
Biotechnology and the future of microbial insecticides 324
The practice of biological control 327
Introduction 327
Augmentation 330
Inundative releases 330
Inoculative releases 330
Environmental manipulations 332
Conservation of natural enemies 333
Conclusions 336
10 ecological management of the crop environment 339
Ecological management 340
Reducing average favorability of the ecosystem 342
Sanitation 342
Crop residue destruction and utilization 342
Elimination of animal wastes 345
Efficient storage and processing 345
Destruction or modification of alternate hosts and habitats 346
Tillage 348
Irrigation and water management 353
Disrupting continuity of pest requisites 356
Reduce continuity in space 356
Crop spacing 356
Crop location 357
Upset chronological continuity 358
Crop rotation 358
Crop fallowing 361
Disrupting crop and insect synchrony 361
Diverting pest populations away from the crop 363
Trap cropping 363
Strip harvesting 364
Intercropping 364
Reducing the impact of insect injury 366
Modify host tolerance 366
Modify harvest schedules 367
Conclusions 369
11 conventional insecticides for management 371
Insecticide names and formulas 372
Insecticide nomenclature 373
Chemical formulas 373
Survey of common insecticides 374
Pyrethroids 375
Third-generation pyrethroids 377
Fourth-generation pyrethroids 377
Carbamates 380
Organophosphates 381
Aliphatic derivatives 382
Phenyl derivatives 384
Heterocyclic derivatives 385
Neonicotinoids 387
Phenylpyrazoles 389
Pyrroles 390
Pyrazoles 390
Pyridazinones 390
Pyridine azomethines 391
Oxadiazines 391
Insect growth regulators 392
Repellents 392
Chlorinated hydrocarbons 392
Ddt and relatives 392
Hch and lindane 394
Cyclodienes 395
Polychloroterpenes 397
Botanicals 397
Pyrethrum 397
Azadiractins 398
Nicotine 398
D-limonene 399
Rotenon 399
Ryania 400
Sabadilla 400
Fumigants 400
Para-dichlorobenzene and naphthalene 401
Inorganic phosphides and phosphine 401
Methyl bromide 401
Chloropicrin 402
Oils 402
Other insecticides 402
Formamidines 402
Dinitrophenols 403
Organosulfurs and organotins 404
Inorganics 404
Insecticidal soaps 405
Chemicals used with insecticides 405
Synergists 405
Solvents 406
Diluents 406
Surfactants 406
Stickers 407
Deodorants 407
Insecticide formulations 407
Liquid formulations 407
Emulsifiable concentrates (ec or e) 407
Solutions (s) 407
Flowables (f or l) 408
Aerosols (a) 408
Liquefied gas (lg or f) 408
Dry formulations 408
Dusts (d) 408
Granules (g) 409
Wettable powders (wp or w) 409
Soluble powders (sp) 409
Dry flowables (df) 409
Water-soluble packets (wsp) 409
Poisonous baits (b) 409
Slow-release formulations (sr) 410
Insecticide toxicity 410
Insecticide modes of action 410
Nerve poisons 411
Muscle poisons 412
Physical toxicants 412
Toxicity to humans 412
Acute poisoning 412
Chronic poisoning 413
Estimation of toxicity to humans 413
Insecticide laws and regulations 417
Federal insecticide, fungicide, and rodenticide act 417
Fifra amended 418
Pesticide label regulations 419
Applicator certification 422
Regulating pesticides 422
Regulation of new pesticides 422
Regulating existing pesticides 424
Food quality protection act 425
Using insecticides for pest management 426
Effective use 426
Choosing an insecticide 426
Choosing a dosage 426
Timing of applications 427
Coverage and confinement of applications 427
Using insecticides safely 431
Conclusions 433
12 managing insects with resistant plants 435
Brief history 436
Insect and host-plant relationships 438
The insect aspect 438
Finding the general habitat 438
Finding the host plant 438
Accepting the plant as a proper host 438
Sufficiency of the plant for requisites 439
The plant aspect 439
Morphological characteristics 440
Physiological characteristics 440
Host-plant selection 440
Mechanisms of resistance 441
Nonpreference 442
Allelochemic nonpreference 442
Morphological nonpreference 442
Use of nonpreference 443
Antibiosis 443
Tolerance 444
Ecological resistance 446
Host evasion 446
Induced resistance 446
Host escape 447
Genetic nature of resistance 447
Epidemiological types of resistance 447
The gene-for-gene relationship 447
Vertical and horizontal types of resistance 448
Resistance classes based on mode of inheritance 449
Oligogenic resistance 450
Polygenic resistance 450
Cytoplasmic resistance 450
Factors mediating the expression of resistance 450
Physical factors 450
Temperature 450
Light intensity 450
Soil fertility 451
Biological factors 451
Biotypes 452
Plant age 452
Traditional development of insect resistant varieties 453
Biotechnology and resistant-variety development 453
Basics of genetic engineering 454
Dna: the blueprint of life 454
Cutting and splicing chromosomes 454
Resistant plants from recombinant dna technology 454
Deployment of engineered resistant plant varieties 459
Insect resistance management 461
Transgenic plants as trap crops 462
Benefits and risks of transgenic crops 462
Successful uses of insect-resistant cultivars 464
Resistance to hessian fly 464
Resistance to european corn borer 465
Resistance to spotted alfalfa aphid 466
Resistance to wheat stem sawfly 466
Resistance to the greenbug 467
Use of plant resistance in insect pest management 468
Plant resistance as the sole or primary tactic 468
Plant resistance integrated with other tactics 469
Conclusions 469
13 management by modifying insect development and behavior 473
Disrupting normal growth and development 474
The basis for igr development 474
Functions of the principal growth hormones 474
Experimental modification of growth hormones 475
Hormone mimics 475
Synthetic hormones 476
Other potential igrs 476
Practical igrs 477
Methoprene 478
Hydroprene 478
Kinoprene 478
Pyriproxyfen 479
Diflubenzuron 479
Lufenuron 479
Buprofezin 481
Hexaflumuron 481
Novaluron 482
Tebufenozide 483
Methoxyfenozide 484
Halofenozide 484
Compatibility of igrs with other tactics 484
Modifying behavior patterns 485
Tactics involving insect attraction 485
Use of pheromones in attraction 485
Pheromones in sampling and detection 487
Pheromones used in attract-and-kill programs 489
Mating disruption by air permeation 490
Use of traditional baits 495
Insect repellents 497
Traditional repellents 497
Plant allomones as repellents 498
Epideictic pheromones as repellents 499
Integration of behavior modification with other tactics 499
Conclusions 500
14 sterile-insect technique and other pest genetic tactics 503
The sterile-insect technique 504
Sit theoretical background 504
Circumstances for application 506
Sterilizing insects in a natural population 507
Methods of sterilization 507
Ionizing radiation 509
Chemosterilization 510
Sterile-insect release programs 511
Screwworm eradication and suppression 511
Tropical fruit fly programs 514
Other insects 515
Requirements and limitations of sterile-insect programs 519
Other genetic tactics 520
Conditional lethal mutations 521
Inherited sterility 522
Hybrid sterility 523
Cytoplasmic incompatibility 524
Chromosomal rearrangements 524
Meiotic drive mechanisms 525
Replacement by innocuous forms 526
Use of molecular genetic techniques 526
Conclusions 526
15 the practice of insect pest management 529
Concepts of integration 529
Basis for integration 530
Preventive practice 531
Lowering the pest's general equilibrium position 531
Raising the level at which economic damage occurs 532
Pesticides not recommended as a preventive tactic 534
Plant and animal quarantine as a preventive tactic 535
Therapeutic practice 537
Use of therapeutics in insect pest management 538
Development of an integrated management program 538
Selection of tactics 539
The management plan and crop values 539
An integrated management program for the bean leaf beetle 540
Areawide pest technology 543
The boll weevil eradication program 544
Pilot project 546
Current program 546
Other areawide programs 548
Site-specific farming and pest management practice 548
Conclusions 552
16 managing ecological backlash 557
Resistance of populations to pest management tactics 557
Principles of resistance 558
Resistance to conventional insecticides 559
Magnitude of the insecticide resistance problem 559
Mechanisms of resistance to insecticides 562
Cross-resistance 564
Dangers and costs of the resistance phenomenon 565
Resistance to other pest management tactics 566
Resistance to insect growth regulators 566
Resistance to microbial insecticides 566
Resistance to parasites 568
Virulence to resistant plants 568
Resistance to crop rotations 569
Resistance to sterile-male releases 570
Resistance to pheromones 570
Management of resistance 570
Conditions that promote resistance 571
Slowing the development of resistance 571
Management by moderation 572
Management by saturation 572
Management by multiple attack 573
Pest population resurgence and replacement 574
Dynamics of resurgence and replacement 574
Upsets from reduction of natural enemies 575
Susceptibility of arthropod natural enemies to insecticides 575
Paradigm for resurgence 576
Examples of resurgence from natural-enemy reduction 576
Paradigm for pest replacement 576
Examples of replacement from natural-enemy reduction 578
Favorable effects of pesticides on arthropod physiology and behavior 579
Upsets from removal of competitors 580
Managing resurgence and replacement 580
Avoiding hormoligosis 580
Avoiding natural-enemy destruction 580
Physiological selectivity 581
Ecological selectivity 581
Inoculative releases of natural enemies 582
Other forms of ecological backlash 584
Enhanced microbial degradation 584
Upsets in community balance 585
Conclusions 585
17 insect pest management case histories 589
Insect pest management in a low-value production system 589
Pest life cycle and biology 589
Injury and interactions with the tree 590
Beetle outbreaks 590
Pest management program for spruce bark beetle 590
Insect pest management in moderate-value production systems 592
Insect pest management in cotton 592
Historical background of cotton-insect control 593
Insect pest management in texas cotton 594
Insect pest management in corn 597
Life history and injury from key pests 598
Historical aspects of pest control 600
Insect pest management program for corn in the northcentral united states 603
Insect pest management in high-value production systems 603
Insect pest management in potatoes 604
Pest biology 604
Early control efforts 605
Insect pest management in the northern united states 605
Insect pest management in apples 606
Key pests and injury 607
Secondary pests and injury 607
Insect pest management in commercial apple orchards 608
Conclusions 611
Appendix 1: key to the orders of insecta 613
Appendix 2: list of some insects and related species alphabetized by common name 619
Appendix 3: world wide web sites of entomological resources 655
Glossary 711
Index 735
List of diagnostic boxes
Common name scientific name box page
Alfalfa caterpillar colias euytheme boisduval 8.2 298
Alfalfa weevil hypera postica (gyllenhal) 6.5 246
Angoumois grain moth sitotroga cerealella (olivier) 10.4 350
Anopheles mosquitoes anopheles species 14.8 525
Armyworm pseudaletia unipuncta (haworth) 10.1 341
Asian longhorned beetle anoplophora glabripennis (motschulsky) 15.1 536
Bean leaf beetle cerotoma trifurcata (forster) 10.8 364
Black blister beetle epicauta pennsylvanica (degeer) 4.4 167
Black cutworm agrotis ipsilon (hufnagel) 7.1 265
Boll weevil anthonomus grandis grandis (boheman) 10.2 343
Cabbage looper trichoplusia ni (hübner) 14.7 524
Cereal leaf beetle oulema melanopus (linnaeus) 10.5 355
Codling moth cydia pomonella (linnaeus) 15.5 552
Colorado potato beetle leptinotarsa decemlineata (say) 5.4 191
Common green lacewing chrysoperla carnea (stephens) 9.4 331
Corn earworm heliothis zea (boddie) 17.1 596
Corn leaf aphid rhopalosiphum maidis (fitch) 8.3 299
Corn rootworms diabrotica species 10.6 359
Cottony cushion scale icerya purchasi maskell 9.1 312
Desert locust schistocerca gregaria (forskgål) 5.6 196
Emerald ash borer agrilus planipennis (fairmaire) 3.2 115
European corn borer ostrinia nubilalis (hübner) 17.2 599
Face fly musca autumnalis degeer 6.3 217
Fall armyworm spodoptera frugiperda (smith) 5.8 198
Fruit fly drosophila melanogaster (meigen) 14.3 510
Forest tent caterpillar malacosoma disstria (hübner) 5.3 188
German cockroach blattella germanica (linnaeus) 8.1 286
Glassywinged sharpshooter homalodisca coagulata (say) 15.2 537
Green cloverworm hypena scabra (fabricius) 8.4 300
Green stink bug acrosternum hilare (say) 4.3 152
Gypsy moth lymantria dispar (linnaeus) 6.2 211
Hessian fly mayetiola destructor (say) 12.2 448
Honey bee apis mellifera linnaeus 4.1 145
Horn fly haematobia irritans (linnaeus) 14.5 521
Horse flies/deer flies tabanus and chrysops species 6.4 225
House fly musca domestica linnaeus 14.2 509
Imported fire ants solenopsis richteri forel 6.1 210
solenopsis invicta buren
Japanese beetle popillia japonica newman 9.3 322
Lady beetles many coccinellid species 9.2 319
Mediterranean fruit fly ceratitis capitata (wiedemann) 14.4 520
Mexican bean beetle epilachna varivestis mulsant 9.5 334
Monarch butterfly danaus plexippus (linnaeus) 5.5 195
Multicolored asian harmonia axyridis (pallas) 3.3 117 lady beetle
Native elm bark beetle hylurgopinus opaculus (leconte) 10.3 346
Painted lady butterfly vanessa cardui (linnaeus) 5.9 201
Pink bollworm pectinophora gossypiella (saunders) 14.6 522
Potato leafhopper empoasca fabae (harris) 7.3 275
Redlegged grasshopper melanoplus femurrubrum (degeer) 5.1 174
Russian wheat aphid diuraphis noxia (mordvilko) 15.3 550
San jose scale quadraspidiotus perniciosus (comstock) 17.3 610
Screwworm cochliomyia hominivorax (coquerel) 14.1 504
Seedcorn maggot delia platura (meigen) 4.5 170
Silkworm bombyx mori (linnaeus) 13.1 486
Soybean aphid aphis glycines matsumura 3.1 111
Soybean looper pseudoplusia includens (walker) 7.2 275
Spotted alfalfa aphid therioaphis maculata (buckton) 12.3 467
Spruce budworm choristoneura fumiferana (clemens) 5.2 185
Sweetpotato whitefly bemisia tabaci gennadius 15.4 551
Tsetse flies glossina species 4.2 151
Twospotted spider mite tetranychus urticae koch 16.1 579
Velvetbean caterpillar anticarsia gemmatalis (hübner) 5.7 197
Wireworms numerous species 10.7 360
Woolly apple aphid eriosoma lanigerum (hausmann) 12.1 437
9780135132951 0135132959
Insect pests--Control.
Insect pests.
Insects.
Entomology.
632/.7 / P3717
