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Entomology and pest management / Larry P. Pedigo, Marlin E. Rice.

By: Contributor(s): Material type: TextTextPublication details: Upper Saddle River, N.J. : Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009Edition: 6th edDescription: xxvi, 784 p., 10 p. ill. (some col.) ; 26 cmISBN:
  • 9780135132951
  • 0135132959
Subject(s): DDC classification:
  • 632/.7 22 P3717
Contents:
Brief contents 1 introduction 1 2 insect structures and life processes 35 3 insect classification 79 4 the insect life cycle 143 5 insect ecology 173 6 surveillance and sampling 209 7 economic decision levels for pest populations 253 8 pest management theory 285 9 management with natural enemies and other biological agents 309 10 ecological management of the crop environment 339 11 conventional insecticides for management 371 12 managing insects with resistant plants 435 13 management by modifying insect development and behavior 473 14 sterile-insect technique and other pest genetic tactics 503 15 the practice of insect pest management 529 16 managing ecological backlash 557 17 insect pest management case histories 589 Appendix 1: key to the orders of insecta 613 Appendix 2: list of some insects and related species alphabetized by common name 619 Appendix 3: world wide web sites of entomological resources 655 Glossary 711 Index 735 Contents 1 introduction 1 Insect abundance 1 Insect diversity 1 What an insect is 2 Other arthropods 3 Class crustacea 3 Class diplopoda 4 Class chilopoda 4 Class arachnida 5 What entomology is 8 Entomologists 10 Producers of entomological information and services 10 Users of entomological information and services 11 Relationships between insects and people 13 Brief history of relationships 13 Insects in antiquity 13 Success of insects 14 Prehistoric times 15 The rise of agriculture and civilization 16 Modern times 17 The ledger 18 Black ink: the benefits 18 Red ink: the losses 23 The balance sheet 27 Insect pest management 29 The concept of pest 30 The concept of pest status 32 2 insect structures and life processes 35 The insect body 35 General organization 35 Tagmosis and the body wall 35 Detail of the body wall 36 The head 38 Cranium 38 Mouthparts 39 Antennae 44 Eyes 46 The thorax 46 Legs 47 Wings 48 The abdomen 49 Maintenance and locomotion 50 Feeding and digestion 50 Feeding 50 The digestive system 51 Digestion 55 Nutrition 56 Excretion 56 The excretory system 57 Excretion 57 Other excretory modes 58 Circulation of blood 58 The circulatory system 58 Blood 59 Circulation 59 Respiration 59 The tracheal system 59 Respiratory process 62 Musculature and locomotion 62 Muscle system 62 Muscle function 64 Locomotion 65 Sensing the environment and integrating activities 67 Sense organs 68 Photoreceptors 68 Chemoreceptors 68 Mechanoreceptors 69 Other receptors 71 Nervous system 72 Central nervous system 72 Visceral nervous system 74 Nerve-impulse transmission and integration 74 Nerve-impulse transmission 74 Integration 76 Insect reproduction 76 The female system 76 The male system 77 3 insect classification 79 Objectives of classification 79 Elements of classification 81 General classification of insects 82 Subclass apterygota 83 Subclass pterygota 90 Suborder anisoptera-dragonflies 91 Suborder zygoptera-damselflies 92 Family acrididae-grasshoppers or locusts 92 Family tettigoniidae-longhorn grasshoppers and katydids 93 Family gryllidae-crickets 93 Family phasmatidae-walkingsticks 94 Family mantidae-mantids 94 Superfamily blattoidea-cockroaches 94 Family kalotermitidae-drywood termites 98 Family rhinotermitidae-subterranean termites 98 Family pediculidae-head and body lice 102 Family pthiridae-crab lice 104 Sucking lice of domestic animals 104 Family pentatomidae-stink bugs 106 Family coreidae-leaffooted bugs 107 Family lygaeidae-seed bugs 107 Family nabidae-damsel bugs 107 Family anthocoridae-pirate bugs 107 Family miridae-plant bugs 107 Family cicadidae-cicadas 108 Family cicadellidae-leafhoppers 108 Superfamily fulgoroidea, many families including fulgoridae-planthoppers 108 Family psyllidae-jumping plantlice 110 Family aleyrodidae-whiteflies 110 Family aphididae-aphids 110 Superfamily coccoidea-scale insects 110 Family carabidae-ground beetles 113 Family staphylinidae-rove beetles 113 Family scarabaeidae-scarab beetles 113 Family buprestidae-metallic wood borers 113 Family elateridae-click beetles 115 Family dermestidae-dermestids 116 Family coccinellidae-lady beetles 116 Family meloidae-blister beetles 117 Family cerambycidae-longhorned beetles 118 Family chrysomelidae-leaf beetles 118 Family curculionidae-weevils 118 Family scolytidae-bark beetles 118 Family tineidae-clothes moths and others 123 Family psychidae-bagworm moths 123 Family tortricidae-tortricid moths 123 Family pyralidae-snout and grass moths 124 Family papilionidae-swallowtail butterflies 124 Family nymphalidae-brushfooted butterflies 124 Family lasiocampidae-tent caterpillars and lappet moths 124 Family sphingidae-sphinx moths 125 Family noctuidae-noctuid moths 126 Family culicidae-mosquitoes 129 Family cecidomyiidae-gall midges 130 Family tabanidae-horse flies and deer flies 130 Family syrphidae-flower flies 130 Family tephritidae-fruit flies 130 Family muscidae-muscid flies 130 Family tachinidae-tachinid flies 131 Family tenthredinidae-tenthredinid sawflies 133 Family cephidae-stem sawflies 133 Family braconidae-braconids 133 Family ichneumonidae-ichneumons 135 Family trichogrammatidae-minute egg parasites 135 Family formicidae-ants 135 Family vespidae-vespid wasps 136 Family apidae-bumble bees, honey bees, and others 137 Mite and tick classification 138 Suborder mesostigmata 139 Suborder ixodida 139 Suborder prostigmata 140 Suborder astigmata 140 4 the insect life cycle 143 Reproduction and embryonic development 143 Types of reproduction 143 Fertilization 146 Development of the embryo 146 Postembryonic growth and development 149 Egg hatching 149 Growth of lmmatures 150 Metamorphosis 154 Terminology 156 Maturity 156 Emergence of the adult 156 Mating behavior 157 Oviposition 157 General models of the life cycle 159 The no-metamorphosis model-ametabolous development 160 The gradual-metamorphosis model-paurometabolous development 160 The incomplete-metamorphosis model-hemimetabolous development 160 The complete-metamorphosis model-holometabolous development 161 Insect seasonal cycles 164 Univoltine cycles 164 Multivoltine cycles 164 Delayed voltine cycles 168 Seasonal adaptations 169 Dormancy 169 Diapause 170 5 insect ecology 173 The ecological role of insect pests 174 The idea of populations 174 Ecosystems and agroecosystems 176 The ecological role of insect outbreaks 179 Dynamics of insect life systems 181 Determinants of insect abundance 181 Population change 183 Birth rate 184 Death rate 184 Movements 191 Effects of environment on insect development 198 Predicting biological events: the degree-day method 199 Degree-day programs in insect pest management 203 Regulation of insect populations 204 6 surveillance and sampling 209 Sampling units and samples 212 Sampling universe 212 Sampling techniques and sampling programs 213 Common sampling techniques in insect pest management 213 In situ counts 213 Knockdown 217 Netting 220 Trapping 222 Extraction from soil 232 Indirect techniques 234 Auxiliary survey equipment 235 The sampling program 235 Kinds of estimates 235 Absolute estimates 235 Relative estimates 236 Converting relative estimates to absolute estimates 237 Descriptive statistics 237 Criteria of estimates 241 Program dimensions 241 Insect stage 241 Number of sampling units 241 Time to sample 242 Pattern of sampling 242 Pest management scouts and scouting records 243 Alfalfa weevil sampling: an example 244 Sequential sampling 247 7 economic decision levels for pestpopulations 253 Concepts of economic levels 253 Economic damage and the damage boundary 254 Economic-injury level 255 Economic threshold 258 Calculation of economic decision levels 259 Dynamics of economic-injury levels 260 Market value (v) 262 Management costs (c) 263 Degree of injury per insect (i) 263 Stand reducers 264 Leaf-mass consumers 264 Assimilate sappers 264 Turgor reducers 265 Fruit feeders 265 Architecture modifiers 266 Injury measurements in eil calculations 267 Crop susceptibility to injury (d) 268 Time of injury 268 Plant part injured 268 Injury types 269 Intensity of injury 269 Environmental effects 271 Amount of damage avoided (k) 272 Experimental techniques to determine plant damage response 273 Observation 273 Modification of natural populations 273 Creating artificial populations 273 Injury simulation 276 Environmental eils 276 Assigning realistic management costs (c) 277 Reducing damage per pest (d) 279 Developing an environmentally responsible k value (k) 279 Manipulating other eil variables 279 Using economic levels 280 Implementation categories 280 No thresholds 280 Nominal thresholds 280 Simple thresholds 280 Comprehensive thresholds 281 Limitations of the eil concept 282 Conclusions 283 8 pest management theory 285 Historical highlights of pest technology 286 Pre-insecticide era 286 Insecticide era 288 Emergence of pest management 290 The concept of pest management 292 Definition and characteristics of pest management 292 Pest management strategies and tactics 293 Do-nothing strategy 293 Reduce-numbers strategy 294 Reduce-crop-susceptibility strategy 296 Combined strategies 297 Kinds of pests and likely strategies 297 Subeconomic pests 297 Occasional pests 298 Perennial and severe pests 300 Development of a pest management program 302 Information and techniques 302 Tactics 304 Putting it all together: systems 304 9 management with natural enemies and other biological agents 309 Brief history of biological control 310 The theory behind classical biological control 311 Agents of biological control 313 Parasites and parasitoids 313 Parasitoids 313 Insect parasitic nematodes 315 Nonbeneficial parasites 315 Predators 317 Pathogenic microorganisms 320 Bacteria 320 Viruses 323 Fungi 324 Biotechnology and the future of microbial insecticides 324 The practice of biological control 327 Introduction 327 Augmentation 330 Inundative releases 330 Inoculative releases 330 Environmental manipulations 332 Conservation of natural enemies 333 Conclusions 336 10 ecological management of the crop environment 339 Ecological management 340 Reducing average favorability of the ecosystem 342 Sanitation 342 Crop residue destruction and utilization 342 Elimination of animal wastes 345 Efficient storage and processing 345 Destruction or modification of alternate hosts and habitats 346 Tillage 348 Irrigation and water management 353 Disrupting continuity of pest requisites 356 Reduce continuity in space 356 Crop spacing 356 Crop location 357 Upset chronological continuity 358 Crop rotation 358 Crop fallowing 361 Disrupting crop and insect synchrony 361 Diverting pest populations away from the crop 363 Trap cropping 363 Strip harvesting 364 Intercropping 364 Reducing the impact of insect injury 366 Modify host tolerance 366 Modify harvest schedules 367 Conclusions 369 11 conventional insecticides for management 371 Insecticide names and formulas 372 Insecticide nomenclature 373 Chemical formulas 373 Survey of common insecticides 374 Pyrethroids 375 Third-generation pyrethroids 377 Fourth-generation pyrethroids 377 Carbamates 380 Organophosphates 381 Aliphatic derivatives 382 Phenyl derivatives 384 Heterocyclic derivatives 385 Neonicotinoids 387 Phenylpyrazoles 389 Pyrroles 390 Pyrazoles 390 Pyridazinones 390 Pyridine azomethines 391 Oxadiazines 391 Insect growth regulators 392 Repellents 392 Chlorinated hydrocarbons 392 Ddt and relatives 392 Hch and lindane 394 Cyclodienes 395 Polychloroterpenes 397 Botanicals 397 Pyrethrum 397 Azadiractins 398 Nicotine 398 D-limonene 399 Rotenon 399 Ryania 400 Sabadilla 400 Fumigants 400 Para-dichlorobenzene and naphthalene 401 Inorganic phosphides and phosphine 401 Methyl bromide 401 Chloropicrin 402 Oils 402 Other insecticides 402 Formamidines 402 Dinitrophenols 403 Organosulfurs and organotins 404 Inorganics 404 Insecticidal soaps 405 Chemicals used with insecticides 405 Synergists 405 Solvents 406 Diluents 406 Surfactants 406 Stickers 407 Deodorants 407 Insecticide formulations 407 Liquid formulations 407 Emulsifiable concentrates (ec or e) 407 Solutions (s) 407 Flowables (f or l) 408 Aerosols (a) 408 Liquefied gas (lg or f) 408 Dry formulations 408 Dusts (d) 408 Granules (g) 409 Wettable powders (wp or w) 409 Soluble powders (sp) 409 Dry flowables (df) 409 Water-soluble packets (wsp) 409 Poisonous baits (b) 409 Slow-release formulations (sr) 410 Insecticide toxicity 410 Insecticide modes of action 410 Nerve poisons 411 Muscle poisons 412 Physical toxicants 412 Toxicity to humans 412 Acute poisoning 412 Chronic poisoning 413 Estimation of toxicity to humans 413 Insecticide laws and regulations 417 Federal insecticide, fungicide, and rodenticide act 417 Fifra amended 418 Pesticide label regulations 419 Applicator certification 422 Regulating pesticides 422 Regulation of new pesticides 422 Regulating existing pesticides 424 Food quality protection act 425 Using insecticides for pest management 426 Effective use 426 Choosing an insecticide 426 Choosing a dosage 426 Timing of applications 427 Coverage and confinement of applications 427 Using insecticides safely 431 Conclusions 433 12 managing insects with resistant plants 435 Brief history 436 Insect and host-plant relationships 438 The insect aspect 438 Finding the general habitat 438 Finding the host plant 438 Accepting the plant as a proper host 438 Sufficiency of the plant for requisites 439 The plant aspect 439 Morphological characteristics 440 Physiological characteristics 440 Host-plant selection 440 Mechanisms of resistance 441 Nonpreference 442 Allelochemic nonpreference 442 Morphological nonpreference 442 Use of nonpreference 443 Antibiosis 443 Tolerance 444 Ecological resistance 446 Host evasion 446 Induced resistance 446 Host escape 447 Genetic nature of resistance 447 Epidemiological types of resistance 447 The gene-for-gene relationship 447 Vertical and horizontal types of resistance 448 Resistance classes based on mode of inheritance 449 Oligogenic resistance 450 Polygenic resistance 450 Cytoplasmic resistance 450 Factors mediating the expression of resistance 450 Physical factors 450 Temperature 450 Light intensity 450 Soil fertility 451 Biological factors 451 Biotypes 452 Plant age 452 Traditional development of insect resistant varieties 453 Biotechnology and resistant-variety development 453 Basics of genetic engineering 454 Dna: the blueprint of life 454 Cutting and splicing chromosomes 454 Resistant plants from recombinant dna technology 454 Deployment of engineered resistant plant varieties 459 Insect resistance management 461 Transgenic plants as trap crops 462 Benefits and risks of transgenic crops 462 Successful uses of insect-resistant cultivars 464 Resistance to hessian fly 464 Resistance to european corn borer 465 Resistance to spotted alfalfa aphid 466 Resistance to wheat stem sawfly 466 Resistance to the greenbug 467 Use of plant resistance in insect pest management 468 Plant resistance as the sole or primary tactic 468 Plant resistance integrated with other tactics 469 Conclusions 469 13 management by modifying insect development and behavior 473 Disrupting normal growth and development 474 The basis for igr development 474 Functions of the principal growth hormones 474 Experimental modification of growth hormones 475 Hormone mimics 475 Synthetic hormones 476 Other potential igrs 476 Practical igrs 477 Methoprene 478 Hydroprene 478 Kinoprene 478 Pyriproxyfen 479 Diflubenzuron 479 Lufenuron 479 Buprofezin 481 Hexaflumuron 481 Novaluron 482 Tebufenozide 483 Methoxyfenozide 484 Halofenozide 484 Compatibility of igrs with other tactics 484 Modifying behavior patterns 485 Tactics involving insect attraction 485 Use of pheromones in attraction 485 Pheromones in sampling and detection 487 Pheromones used in attract-and-kill programs 489 Mating disruption by air permeation 490 Use of traditional baits 495 Insect repellents 497 Traditional repellents 497 Plant allomones as repellents 498 Epideictic pheromones as repellents 499 Integration of behavior modification with other tactics 499 Conclusions 500 14 sterile-insect technique and other pest genetic tactics 503 The sterile-insect technique 504 Sit theoretical background 504 Circumstances for application 506 Sterilizing insects in a natural population 507 Methods of sterilization 507 Ionizing radiation 509 Chemosterilization 510 Sterile-insect release programs 511 Screwworm eradication and suppression 511 Tropical fruit fly programs 514 Other insects 515 Requirements and limitations of sterile-insect programs 519 Other genetic tactics 520 Conditional lethal mutations 521 Inherited sterility 522 Hybrid sterility 523 Cytoplasmic incompatibility 524 Chromosomal rearrangements 524 Meiotic drive mechanisms 525 Replacement by innocuous forms 526 Use of molecular genetic techniques 526 Conclusions 526 15 the practice of insect pest management 529 Concepts of integration 529 Basis for integration 530 Preventive practice 531 Lowering the pest's general equilibrium position 531 Raising the level at which economic damage occurs 532 Pesticides not recommended as a preventive tactic 534 Plant and animal quarantine as a preventive tactic 535 Therapeutic practice 537 Use of therapeutics in insect pest management 538 Development of an integrated management program 538 Selection of tactics 539 The management plan and crop values 539 An integrated management program for the bean leaf beetle 540 Areawide pest technology 543 The boll weevil eradication program 544 Pilot project 546 Current program 546 Other areawide programs 548 Site-specific farming and pest management practice 548 Conclusions 552 16 managing ecological backlash 557 Resistance of populations to pest management tactics 557 Principles of resistance 558 Resistance to conventional insecticides 559 Magnitude of the insecticide resistance problem 559 Mechanisms of resistance to insecticides 562 Cross-resistance 564 Dangers and costs of the resistance phenomenon 565 Resistance to other pest management tactics 566 Resistance to insect growth regulators 566 Resistance to microbial insecticides 566 Resistance to parasites 568 Virulence to resistant plants 568 Resistance to crop rotations 569 Resistance to sterile-male releases 570 Resistance to pheromones 570 Management of resistance 570 Conditions that promote resistance 571 Slowing the development of resistance 571 Management by moderation 572 Management by saturation 572 Management by multiple attack 573 Pest population resurgence and replacement 574 Dynamics of resurgence and replacement 574 Upsets from reduction of natural enemies 575 Susceptibility of arthropod natural enemies to insecticides 575 Paradigm for resurgence 576 Examples of resurgence from natural-enemy reduction 576 Paradigm for pest replacement 576 Examples of replacement from natural-enemy reduction 578 Favorable effects of pesticides on arthropod physiology and behavior 579 Upsets from removal of competitors 580 Managing resurgence and replacement 580 Avoiding hormoligosis 580 Avoiding natural-enemy destruction 580 Physiological selectivity 581 Ecological selectivity 581 Inoculative releases of natural enemies 582 Other forms of ecological backlash 584 Enhanced microbial degradation 584 Upsets in community balance 585 Conclusions 585 17 insect pest management case histories 589 Insect pest management in a low-value production system 589 Pest life cycle and biology 589 Injury and interactions with the tree 590 Beetle outbreaks 590 Pest management program for spruce bark beetle 590 Insect pest management in moderate-value production systems 592 Insect pest management in cotton 592 Historical background of cotton-insect control 593 Insect pest management in texas cotton 594 Insect pest management in corn 597 Life history and injury from key pests 598 Historical aspects of pest control 600 Insect pest management program for corn in the northcentral united states 603 Insect pest management in high-value production systems 603 Insect pest management in potatoes 604 Pest biology 604 Early control efforts 605 Insect pest management in the northern united states 605 Insect pest management in apples 606 Key pests and injury 607 Secondary pests and injury 607 Insect pest management in commercial apple orchards 608 Conclusions 611 Appendix 1: key to the orders of insecta 613 Appendix 2: list of some insects and related species alphabetized by common name 619 Appendix 3: world wide web sites of entomological resources 655 Glossary 711 Index 735 List of diagnostic boxes Common name scientific name box page Alfalfa caterpillar colias euytheme boisduval 8.2 298 Alfalfa weevil hypera postica (gyllenhal) 6.5 246 Angoumois grain moth sitotroga cerealella (olivier) 10.4 350 Anopheles mosquitoes anopheles species 14.8 525 Armyworm pseudaletia unipuncta (haworth) 10.1 341 Asian longhorned beetle anoplophora glabripennis (motschulsky) 15.1 536 Bean leaf beetle cerotoma trifurcata (forster) 10.8 364 Black blister beetle epicauta pennsylvanica (degeer) 4.4 167 Black cutworm agrotis ipsilon (hufnagel) 7.1 265 Boll weevil anthonomus grandis grandis (boheman) 10.2 343 Cabbage looper trichoplusia ni (hübner) 14.7 524 Cereal leaf beetle oulema melanopus (linnaeus) 10.5 355 Codling moth cydia pomonella (linnaeus) 15.5 552 Colorado potato beetle leptinotarsa decemlineata (say) 5.4 191 Common green lacewing chrysoperla carnea (stephens) 9.4 331 Corn earworm heliothis zea (boddie) 17.1 596 Corn leaf aphid rhopalosiphum maidis (fitch) 8.3 299 Corn rootworms diabrotica species 10.6 359 Cottony cushion scale icerya purchasi maskell 9.1 312 Desert locust schistocerca gregaria (forskgål) 5.6 196 Emerald ash borer agrilus planipennis (fairmaire) 3.2 115 European corn borer ostrinia nubilalis (hübner) 17.2 599 Face fly musca autumnalis degeer 6.3 217 Fall armyworm spodoptera frugiperda (smith) 5.8 198 Fruit fly drosophila melanogaster (meigen) 14.3 510 Forest tent caterpillar malacosoma disstria (hübner) 5.3 188 German cockroach blattella germanica (linnaeus) 8.1 286 Glassywinged sharpshooter homalodisca coagulata (say) 15.2 537 Green cloverworm hypena scabra (fabricius) 8.4 300 Green stink bug acrosternum hilare (say) 4.3 152 Gypsy moth lymantria dispar (linnaeus) 6.2 211 Hessian fly mayetiola destructor (say) 12.2 448 Honey bee apis mellifera linnaeus 4.1 145 Horn fly haematobia irritans (linnaeus) 14.5 521 Horse flies/deer flies tabanus and chrysops species 6.4 225 House fly musca domestica linnaeus 14.2 509 Imported fire ants solenopsis richteri forel 6.1 210 solenopsis invicta buren Japanese beetle popillia japonica newman 9.3 322 Lady beetles many coccinellid species 9.2 319 Mediterranean fruit fly ceratitis capitata (wiedemann) 14.4 520 Mexican bean beetle epilachna varivestis mulsant 9.5 334 Monarch butterfly danaus plexippus (linnaeus) 5.5 195 Multicolored asian harmonia axyridis (pallas) 3.3 117 lady beetle Native elm bark beetle hylurgopinus opaculus (leconte) 10.3 346 Painted lady butterfly vanessa cardui (linnaeus) 5.9 201 Pink bollworm pectinophora gossypiella (saunders) 14.6 522 Potato leafhopper empoasca fabae (harris) 7.3 275 Redlegged grasshopper melanoplus femurrubrum (degeer) 5.1 174 Russian wheat aphid diuraphis noxia (mordvilko) 15.3 550 San jose scale quadraspidiotus perniciosus (comstock) 17.3 610 Screwworm cochliomyia hominivorax (coquerel) 14.1 504 Seedcorn maggot delia platura (meigen) 4.5 170 Silkworm bombyx mori (linnaeus) 13.1 486 Soybean aphid aphis glycines matsumura 3.1 111 Soybean looper pseudoplusia includens (walker) 7.2 275 Spotted alfalfa aphid therioaphis maculata (buckton) 12.3 467 Spruce budworm choristoneura fumiferana (clemens) 5.2 185 Sweetpotato whitefly bemisia tabaci gennadius 15.4 551 Tsetse flies glossina species 4.2 151 Twospotted spider mite tetranychus urticae koch 16.1 579 Velvetbean caterpillar anticarsia gemmatalis (hübner) 5.7 197 Wireworms numerous species 10.7 360 Woolly apple aphid eriosoma lanigerum (hausmann) 12.1 437
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Books Books UE-Central Library 632.7 P3717 (Browse shelf(Opens below)) Available T1336

Includes bibliographical references and index

Brief contents
1 introduction 1
2 insect structures and life processes 35
3 insect classification 79
4 the insect life cycle 143
5 insect ecology 173
6 surveillance and sampling 209
7 economic decision levels for pest populations 253
8 pest management theory 285
9 management with natural enemies and other biological agents 309
10 ecological management of the crop environment 339
11 conventional insecticides for management 371
12 managing insects with resistant plants 435
13 management by modifying insect development and behavior 473
14 sterile-insect technique and other pest genetic tactics 503
15 the practice of insect pest management 529
16 managing ecological backlash 557
17 insect pest management case histories 589
Appendix 1: key to the orders of insecta 613
Appendix 2: list of some insects and related species alphabetized by common name 619
Appendix 3: world wide web sites of entomological resources 655
Glossary 711
Index 735
Contents
1 introduction 1
Insect abundance 1
Insect diversity 1
What an insect is 2
Other arthropods 3
Class crustacea 3
Class diplopoda 4
Class chilopoda 4
Class arachnida 5
What entomology is 8
Entomologists 10
Producers of entomological information and services 10
Users of entomological information and services 11
Relationships between insects and people 13
Brief history of relationships 13
Insects in antiquity 13
Success of insects 14
Prehistoric times 15
The rise of agriculture and civilization 16
Modern times 17
The ledger 18
Black ink: the benefits 18
Red ink: the losses 23
The balance sheet 27
Insect pest management 29
The concept of pest 30
The concept of pest status 32
2 insect structures and life processes 35
The insect body 35
General organization 35
Tagmosis and the body wall 35
Detail of the body wall 36
The head 38
Cranium 38
Mouthparts 39
Antennae 44
Eyes 46
The thorax 46
Legs 47
Wings 48
The abdomen 49
Maintenance and locomotion 50
Feeding and digestion 50
Feeding 50
The digestive system 51
Digestion 55
Nutrition 56
Excretion 56
The excretory system 57
Excretion 57
Other excretory modes 58
Circulation of blood 58
The circulatory system 58
Blood 59
Circulation 59
Respiration 59
The tracheal system 59
Respiratory process 62
Musculature and locomotion 62
Muscle system 62
Muscle function 64
Locomotion 65
Sensing the environment and integrating activities 67
Sense organs 68
Photoreceptors 68
Chemoreceptors 68
Mechanoreceptors 69
Other receptors 71
Nervous system 72
Central nervous system 72
Visceral nervous system 74
Nerve-impulse transmission and integration 74
Nerve-impulse transmission 74
Integration 76
Insect reproduction 76
The female system 76
The male system 77
3 insect classification 79
Objectives of classification 79
Elements of classification 81
General classification of insects 82
Subclass apterygota 83
Subclass pterygota 90
Suborder anisoptera-dragonflies 91
Suborder zygoptera-damselflies 92
Family acrididae-grasshoppers or locusts 92
Family tettigoniidae-longhorn grasshoppers and katydids 93
Family gryllidae-crickets 93
Family phasmatidae-walkingsticks 94
Family mantidae-mantids 94
Superfamily blattoidea-cockroaches 94
Family kalotermitidae-drywood termites 98
Family rhinotermitidae-subterranean termites 98
Family pediculidae-head and body lice 102
Family pthiridae-crab lice 104
Sucking lice of domestic animals 104
Family pentatomidae-stink bugs 106
Family coreidae-leaffooted bugs 107
Family lygaeidae-seed bugs 107
Family nabidae-damsel bugs 107
Family anthocoridae-pirate bugs 107
Family miridae-plant bugs 107
Family cicadidae-cicadas 108
Family cicadellidae-leafhoppers 108
Superfamily fulgoroidea, many families including fulgoridae-planthoppers 108
Family psyllidae-jumping plantlice 110
Family aleyrodidae-whiteflies 110
Family aphididae-aphids 110
Superfamily coccoidea-scale insects 110
Family carabidae-ground beetles 113
Family staphylinidae-rove beetles 113
Family scarabaeidae-scarab beetles 113
Family buprestidae-metallic wood borers 113
Family elateridae-click beetles 115
Family dermestidae-dermestids 116
Family coccinellidae-lady beetles 116
Family meloidae-blister beetles 117
Family cerambycidae-longhorned beetles 118
Family chrysomelidae-leaf beetles 118
Family curculionidae-weevils 118
Family scolytidae-bark beetles 118
Family tineidae-clothes moths and others 123
Family psychidae-bagworm moths 123
Family tortricidae-tortricid moths 123
Family pyralidae-snout and grass moths 124
Family papilionidae-swallowtail butterflies 124
Family nymphalidae-brushfooted butterflies 124
Family lasiocampidae-tent caterpillars and lappet moths 124
Family sphingidae-sphinx moths 125
Family noctuidae-noctuid moths 126
Family culicidae-mosquitoes 129
Family cecidomyiidae-gall midges 130
Family tabanidae-horse flies and deer flies 130
Family syrphidae-flower flies 130
Family tephritidae-fruit flies 130
Family muscidae-muscid flies 130
Family tachinidae-tachinid flies 131
Family tenthredinidae-tenthredinid sawflies 133
Family cephidae-stem sawflies 133
Family braconidae-braconids 133
Family ichneumonidae-ichneumons 135
Family trichogrammatidae-minute egg parasites 135
Family formicidae-ants 135
Family vespidae-vespid wasps 136
Family apidae-bumble bees, honey bees, and others 137
Mite and tick classification 138
Suborder mesostigmata 139
Suborder ixodida 139
Suborder prostigmata 140
Suborder astigmata 140
4 the insect life cycle 143
Reproduction and embryonic development 143
Types of reproduction 143
Fertilization 146
Development of the embryo 146
Postembryonic growth and development 149
Egg hatching 149
Growth of lmmatures 150
Metamorphosis 154
Terminology 156
Maturity 156
Emergence of the adult 156
Mating behavior 157
Oviposition 157
General models of the life cycle 159
The no-metamorphosis model-ametabolous development 160
The gradual-metamorphosis model-paurometabolous development 160
The incomplete-metamorphosis model-hemimetabolous development 160
The complete-metamorphosis model-holometabolous development 161
Insect seasonal cycles 164
Univoltine cycles 164
Multivoltine cycles 164
Delayed voltine cycles 168
Seasonal adaptations 169
Dormancy 169
Diapause 170
5 insect ecology 173
The ecological role of insect pests 174
The idea of populations 174
Ecosystems and agroecosystems 176
The ecological role of insect outbreaks 179
Dynamics of insect life systems 181
Determinants of insect abundance 181
Population change 183
Birth rate 184
Death rate 184
Movements 191
Effects of environment on insect development 198
Predicting biological events: the degree-day method 199
Degree-day programs in insect pest management 203
Regulation of insect populations 204
6 surveillance and sampling 209
Sampling units and samples 212
Sampling universe 212
Sampling techniques and sampling programs 213
Common sampling techniques in insect pest management 213
In situ counts 213
Knockdown 217
Netting 220
Trapping 222
Extraction from soil 232
Indirect techniques 234
Auxiliary survey equipment 235
The sampling program 235
Kinds of estimates 235
Absolute estimates 235
Relative estimates 236
Converting relative estimates to absolute estimates 237
Descriptive statistics 237
Criteria of estimates 241
Program dimensions 241
Insect stage 241
Number of sampling units 241
Time to sample 242
Pattern of sampling 242
Pest management scouts and scouting records 243
Alfalfa weevil sampling: an example 244
Sequential sampling 247
7 economic decision levels for pestpopulations 253
Concepts of economic levels 253
Economic damage and the damage boundary 254
Economic-injury level 255
Economic threshold 258
Calculation of economic decision levels 259
Dynamics of economic-injury levels 260
Market value (v) 262
Management costs (c) 263
Degree of injury per insect (i) 263
Stand reducers 264
Leaf-mass consumers 264
Assimilate sappers 264
Turgor reducers 265
Fruit feeders 265
Architecture modifiers 266
Injury measurements in eil calculations 267
Crop susceptibility to injury (d) 268
Time of injury 268
Plant part injured 268
Injury types 269
Intensity of injury 269
Environmental effects 271
Amount of damage avoided (k) 272
Experimental techniques to determine plant damage response 273
Observation 273
Modification of natural populations 273
Creating artificial populations 273
Injury simulation 276
Environmental eils 276
Assigning realistic management costs (c) 277
Reducing damage per pest (d) 279
Developing an environmentally responsible k value (k) 279
Manipulating other eil variables 279
Using economic levels 280
Implementation categories 280
No thresholds 280
Nominal thresholds 280
Simple thresholds 280
Comprehensive thresholds 281
Limitations of the eil concept 282
Conclusions 283
8 pest management theory 285
Historical highlights of pest technology 286
Pre-insecticide era 286
Insecticide era 288
Emergence of pest management 290
The concept of pest management 292
Definition and characteristics of pest management 292
Pest management strategies and tactics 293
Do-nothing strategy 293
Reduce-numbers strategy 294
Reduce-crop-susceptibility strategy 296
Combined strategies 297
Kinds of pests and likely strategies 297
Subeconomic pests 297
Occasional pests 298
Perennial and severe pests 300
Development of a pest management program 302
Information and techniques 302
Tactics 304
Putting it all together: systems 304
9 management with natural enemies and other biological agents 309
Brief history of biological control 310
The theory behind classical biological control 311
Agents of biological control 313
Parasites and parasitoids 313
Parasitoids 313
Insect parasitic nematodes 315
Nonbeneficial parasites 315
Predators 317
Pathogenic microorganisms 320
Bacteria 320
Viruses 323
Fungi 324
Biotechnology and the future of microbial insecticides 324
The practice of biological control 327
Introduction 327
Augmentation 330
Inundative releases 330
Inoculative releases 330
Environmental manipulations 332
Conservation of natural enemies 333
Conclusions 336
10 ecological management of the crop environment 339
Ecological management 340
Reducing average favorability of the ecosystem 342
Sanitation 342
Crop residue destruction and utilization 342
Elimination of animal wastes 345
Efficient storage and processing 345
Destruction or modification of alternate hosts and habitats 346
Tillage 348
Irrigation and water management 353
Disrupting continuity of pest requisites 356
Reduce continuity in space 356
Crop spacing 356
Crop location 357
Upset chronological continuity 358
Crop rotation 358
Crop fallowing 361
Disrupting crop and insect synchrony 361
Diverting pest populations away from the crop 363
Trap cropping 363
Strip harvesting 364
Intercropping 364
Reducing the impact of insect injury 366
Modify host tolerance 366
Modify harvest schedules 367
Conclusions 369
11 conventional insecticides for management 371
Insecticide names and formulas 372
Insecticide nomenclature 373
Chemical formulas 373
Survey of common insecticides 374
Pyrethroids 375
Third-generation pyrethroids 377
Fourth-generation pyrethroids 377
Carbamates 380
Organophosphates 381
Aliphatic derivatives 382
Phenyl derivatives 384
Heterocyclic derivatives 385
Neonicotinoids 387
Phenylpyrazoles 389
Pyrroles 390
Pyrazoles 390
Pyridazinones 390
Pyridine azomethines 391
Oxadiazines 391
Insect growth regulators 392
Repellents 392
Chlorinated hydrocarbons 392
Ddt and relatives 392
Hch and lindane 394
Cyclodienes 395
Polychloroterpenes 397
Botanicals 397
Pyrethrum 397
Azadiractins 398
Nicotine 398
D-limonene 399
Rotenon 399
Ryania 400
Sabadilla 400
Fumigants 400
Para-dichlorobenzene and naphthalene 401
Inorganic phosphides and phosphine 401
Methyl bromide 401
Chloropicrin 402
Oils 402
Other insecticides 402
Formamidines 402
Dinitrophenols 403
Organosulfurs and organotins 404
Inorganics 404
Insecticidal soaps 405
Chemicals used with insecticides 405
Synergists 405
Solvents 406
Diluents 406
Surfactants 406
Stickers 407
Deodorants 407
Insecticide formulations 407
Liquid formulations 407
Emulsifiable concentrates (ec or e) 407
Solutions (s) 407
Flowables (f or l) 408
Aerosols (a) 408
Liquefied gas (lg or f) 408
Dry formulations 408
Dusts (d) 408
Granules (g) 409
Wettable powders (wp or w) 409
Soluble powders (sp) 409
Dry flowables (df) 409
Water-soluble packets (wsp) 409
Poisonous baits (b) 409
Slow-release formulations (sr) 410
Insecticide toxicity 410
Insecticide modes of action 410
Nerve poisons 411
Muscle poisons 412
Physical toxicants 412
Toxicity to humans 412
Acute poisoning 412
Chronic poisoning 413
Estimation of toxicity to humans 413
Insecticide laws and regulations 417
Federal insecticide, fungicide, and rodenticide act 417
Fifra amended 418
Pesticide label regulations 419
Applicator certification 422
Regulating pesticides 422
Regulation of new pesticides 422
Regulating existing pesticides 424
Food quality protection act 425
Using insecticides for pest management 426
Effective use 426
Choosing an insecticide 426
Choosing a dosage 426
Timing of applications 427
Coverage and confinement of applications 427
Using insecticides safely 431
Conclusions 433
12 managing insects with resistant plants 435
Brief history 436
Insect and host-plant relationships 438
The insect aspect 438
Finding the general habitat 438
Finding the host plant 438
Accepting the plant as a proper host 438
Sufficiency of the plant for requisites 439
The plant aspect 439
Morphological characteristics 440
Physiological characteristics 440
Host-plant selection 440
Mechanisms of resistance 441
Nonpreference 442
Allelochemic nonpreference 442
Morphological nonpreference 442
Use of nonpreference 443
Antibiosis 443
Tolerance 444
Ecological resistance 446
Host evasion 446
Induced resistance 446
Host escape 447
Genetic nature of resistance 447
Epidemiological types of resistance 447
The gene-for-gene relationship 447
Vertical and horizontal types of resistance 448
Resistance classes based on mode of inheritance 449
Oligogenic resistance 450
Polygenic resistance 450
Cytoplasmic resistance 450
Factors mediating the expression of resistance 450
Physical factors 450
Temperature 450
Light intensity 450
Soil fertility 451
Biological factors 451
Biotypes 452
Plant age 452
Traditional development of insect resistant varieties 453
Biotechnology and resistant-variety development 453
Basics of genetic engineering 454
Dna: the blueprint of life 454
Cutting and splicing chromosomes 454
Resistant plants from recombinant dna technology 454
Deployment of engineered resistant plant varieties 459
Insect resistance management 461
Transgenic plants as trap crops 462
Benefits and risks of transgenic crops 462
Successful uses of insect-resistant cultivars 464
Resistance to hessian fly 464
Resistance to european corn borer 465
Resistance to spotted alfalfa aphid 466
Resistance to wheat stem sawfly 466
Resistance to the greenbug 467
Use of plant resistance in insect pest management 468
Plant resistance as the sole or primary tactic 468
Plant resistance integrated with other tactics 469
Conclusions 469
13 management by modifying insect development and behavior 473
Disrupting normal growth and development 474
The basis for igr development 474
Functions of the principal growth hormones 474
Experimental modification of growth hormones 475
Hormone mimics 475
Synthetic hormones 476
Other potential igrs 476
Practical igrs 477
Methoprene 478
Hydroprene 478
Kinoprene 478
Pyriproxyfen 479
Diflubenzuron 479
Lufenuron 479
Buprofezin 481
Hexaflumuron 481
Novaluron 482
Tebufenozide 483
Methoxyfenozide 484
Halofenozide 484
Compatibility of igrs with other tactics 484
Modifying behavior patterns 485
Tactics involving insect attraction 485
Use of pheromones in attraction 485
Pheromones in sampling and detection 487
Pheromones used in attract-and-kill programs 489
Mating disruption by air permeation 490
Use of traditional baits 495
Insect repellents 497
Traditional repellents 497
Plant allomones as repellents 498
Epideictic pheromones as repellents 499
Integration of behavior modification with other tactics 499
Conclusions 500
14 sterile-insect technique and other pest genetic tactics 503
The sterile-insect technique 504
Sit theoretical background 504
Circumstances for application 506
Sterilizing insects in a natural population 507
Methods of sterilization 507
Ionizing radiation 509
Chemosterilization 510
Sterile-insect release programs 511
Screwworm eradication and suppression 511
Tropical fruit fly programs 514
Other insects 515
Requirements and limitations of sterile-insect programs 519
Other genetic tactics 520
Conditional lethal mutations 521
Inherited sterility 522
Hybrid sterility 523
Cytoplasmic incompatibility 524
Chromosomal rearrangements 524
Meiotic drive mechanisms 525
Replacement by innocuous forms 526
Use of molecular genetic techniques 526
Conclusions 526
15 the practice of insect pest management 529
Concepts of integration 529
Basis for integration 530
Preventive practice 531
Lowering the pest's general equilibrium position 531
Raising the level at which economic damage occurs 532
Pesticides not recommended as a preventive tactic 534
Plant and animal quarantine as a preventive tactic 535
Therapeutic practice 537
Use of therapeutics in insect pest management 538
Development of an integrated management program 538
Selection of tactics 539
The management plan and crop values 539
An integrated management program for the bean leaf beetle 540
Areawide pest technology 543
The boll weevil eradication program 544
Pilot project 546
Current program 546
Other areawide programs 548
Site-specific farming and pest management practice 548
Conclusions 552
16 managing ecological backlash 557
Resistance of populations to pest management tactics 557
Principles of resistance 558
Resistance to conventional insecticides 559
Magnitude of the insecticide resistance problem 559
Mechanisms of resistance to insecticides 562
Cross-resistance 564
Dangers and costs of the resistance phenomenon 565
Resistance to other pest management tactics 566
Resistance to insect growth regulators 566
Resistance to microbial insecticides 566
Resistance to parasites 568
Virulence to resistant plants 568
Resistance to crop rotations 569
Resistance to sterile-male releases 570
Resistance to pheromones 570
Management of resistance 570
Conditions that promote resistance 571
Slowing the development of resistance 571
Management by moderation 572
Management by saturation 572
Management by multiple attack 573
Pest population resurgence and replacement 574
Dynamics of resurgence and replacement 574
Upsets from reduction of natural enemies 575
Susceptibility of arthropod natural enemies to insecticides 575
Paradigm for resurgence 576
Examples of resurgence from natural-enemy reduction 576
Paradigm for pest replacement 576
Examples of replacement from natural-enemy reduction 578
Favorable effects of pesticides on arthropod physiology and behavior 579
Upsets from removal of competitors 580
Managing resurgence and replacement 580
Avoiding hormoligosis 580
Avoiding natural-enemy destruction 580
Physiological selectivity 581
Ecological selectivity 581
Inoculative releases of natural enemies 582
Other forms of ecological backlash 584
Enhanced microbial degradation 584
Upsets in community balance 585
Conclusions 585
17 insect pest management case histories 589
Insect pest management in a low-value production system 589
Pest life cycle and biology 589
Injury and interactions with the tree 590
Beetle outbreaks 590
Pest management program for spruce bark beetle 590
Insect pest management in moderate-value production systems 592
Insect pest management in cotton 592
Historical background of cotton-insect control 593
Insect pest management in texas cotton 594
Insect pest management in corn 597
Life history and injury from key pests 598
Historical aspects of pest control 600
Insect pest management program for corn in the northcentral united states 603
Insect pest management in high-value production systems 603
Insect pest management in potatoes 604
Pest biology 604
Early control efforts 605
Insect pest management in the northern united states 605
Insect pest management in apples 606
Key pests and injury 607
Secondary pests and injury 607
Insect pest management in commercial apple orchards 608
Conclusions 611
Appendix 1: key to the orders of insecta 613
Appendix 2: list of some insects and related species alphabetized by common name 619
Appendix 3: world wide web sites of entomological resources 655
Glossary 711
Index 735
List of diagnostic boxes
Common name scientific name box page
Alfalfa caterpillar colias euytheme boisduval 8.2 298
Alfalfa weevil hypera postica (gyllenhal) 6.5 246
Angoumois grain moth sitotroga cerealella (olivier) 10.4 350
Anopheles mosquitoes anopheles species 14.8 525
Armyworm pseudaletia unipuncta (haworth) 10.1 341
Asian longhorned beetle anoplophora glabripennis (motschulsky) 15.1 536
Bean leaf beetle cerotoma trifurcata (forster) 10.8 364
Black blister beetle epicauta pennsylvanica (degeer) 4.4 167
Black cutworm agrotis ipsilon (hufnagel) 7.1 265
Boll weevil anthonomus grandis grandis (boheman) 10.2 343
Cabbage looper trichoplusia ni (hübner) 14.7 524
Cereal leaf beetle oulema melanopus (linnaeus) 10.5 355
Codling moth cydia pomonella (linnaeus) 15.5 552
Colorado potato beetle leptinotarsa decemlineata (say) 5.4 191
Common green lacewing chrysoperla carnea (stephens) 9.4 331
Corn earworm heliothis zea (boddie) 17.1 596
Corn leaf aphid rhopalosiphum maidis (fitch) 8.3 299
Corn rootworms diabrotica species 10.6 359
Cottony cushion scale icerya purchasi maskell 9.1 312
Desert locust schistocerca gregaria (forskgål) 5.6 196
Emerald ash borer agrilus planipennis (fairmaire) 3.2 115
European corn borer ostrinia nubilalis (hübner) 17.2 599
Face fly musca autumnalis degeer 6.3 217
Fall armyworm spodoptera frugiperda (smith) 5.8 198
Fruit fly drosophila melanogaster (meigen) 14.3 510
Forest tent caterpillar malacosoma disstria (hübner) 5.3 188
German cockroach blattella germanica (linnaeus) 8.1 286
Glassywinged sharpshooter homalodisca coagulata (say) 15.2 537
Green cloverworm hypena scabra (fabricius) 8.4 300
Green stink bug acrosternum hilare (say) 4.3 152
Gypsy moth lymantria dispar (linnaeus) 6.2 211
Hessian fly mayetiola destructor (say) 12.2 448
Honey bee apis mellifera linnaeus 4.1 145
Horn fly haematobia irritans (linnaeus) 14.5 521
Horse flies/deer flies tabanus and chrysops species 6.4 225
House fly musca domestica linnaeus 14.2 509
Imported fire ants solenopsis richteri forel 6.1 210
solenopsis invicta buren
Japanese beetle popillia japonica newman 9.3 322
Lady beetles many coccinellid species 9.2 319
Mediterranean fruit fly ceratitis capitata (wiedemann) 14.4 520
Mexican bean beetle epilachna varivestis mulsant 9.5 334
Monarch butterfly danaus plexippus (linnaeus) 5.5 195
Multicolored asian harmonia axyridis (pallas) 3.3 117 lady beetle
Native elm bark beetle hylurgopinus opaculus (leconte) 10.3 346
Painted lady butterfly vanessa cardui (linnaeus) 5.9 201
Pink bollworm pectinophora gossypiella (saunders) 14.6 522
Potato leafhopper empoasca fabae (harris) 7.3 275
Redlegged grasshopper melanoplus femurrubrum (degeer) 5.1 174
Russian wheat aphid diuraphis noxia (mordvilko) 15.3 550
San jose scale quadraspidiotus perniciosus (comstock) 17.3 610
Screwworm cochliomyia hominivorax (coquerel) 14.1 504
Seedcorn maggot delia platura (meigen) 4.5 170
Silkworm bombyx mori (linnaeus) 13.1 486
Soybean aphid aphis glycines matsumura 3.1 111
Soybean looper pseudoplusia includens (walker) 7.2 275
Spotted alfalfa aphid therioaphis maculata (buckton) 12.3 467
Spruce budworm choristoneura fumiferana (clemens) 5.2 185
Sweetpotato whitefly bemisia tabaci gennadius 15.4 551
Tsetse flies glossina species 4.2 151
Twospotted spider mite tetranychus urticae koch 16.1 579
Velvetbean caterpillar anticarsia gemmatalis (hübner) 5.7 197
Wireworms numerous species 10.7 360
Woolly apple aphid eriosoma lanigerum (hausmann) 12.1 437

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