TY - BOOK AU - Gilbert,Thomas R. TI - Chemistry SN - 9780393926491 U1 - 540 22 PY - 2009/// CY - New York PB - W.W. Norton KW - Chemistry N1 - Revised ed. of: Chemistry. The science in context / Thomas R. Gilbert, Rein V. Kirss, Geoffrey Davies. c2004; Includes index; Contents 1 matter, energy, and the origins of the universe 1 A look ahead blinded by the sun 2 1.1 chemistry and the classes of matter 3 1.2 matter: an atomic view 6 1.3 mixtures and how to separate them 8 1.4 properties of matter 10 1.5 a method for answering questions and solving problems 11 1.6 states of matter 13 1.7 the scientific method: starting off with a bang 16 1.8 making measurements and expressing the results 18 Si units 18 Significant figures 20 Significant figures in calculations 21 Precision and accuracy 26 1.9 unit conversions and dimensional analysis 27 1.10 testing a hypothesis: the big bang revisited 30 Temperature scales 30 An echo of the big bang 33 Summary 35 Problem-solving summary 35 Visual problems 36 Questions and problems 37 2 atoms, ions, and compounds 41 A look ahead when artillery shells bounced off tissue paper 42 2.1 elements of the solar system 42 2.2 compounds and earth's early atmosphere 44 2.3 the rutherford model of atomic structure 46 Electrons 46 Radioactivity and the nuclear atom 48 Protons and neutrons 49 2.4 isotopes 50 2.5 average atomic masses 52 2.6 the periodic table of the elements 54 Mendeleev's periodic table 54 Navigating the modern periodic table 55 2.7 trends in compound formation 58 2.8 naming compounds and writing their formulas 60 Binary molecular compounds 60 Binary ionic compounds 61 Binary compounds of transition metals 63 Polyatomic ions 64 Acids 66 2.9 nucleosynthesis 67 Early nucleosynthesis 67 Stellar nucleosynthesis 69 Summary 72 Problem-solving summary 72 Visual problems 73 Questions and problems 74 3 chemical reactions and earth's composition 80 A look ahead purple salt and bottled water 81 3.1 composition of earth 81 3.2 the mole 82 Molar mass 83 Molecular masses and formula masses 85 Moles and chemical equations 87 3.3 writing balanced chemical equations 88 3.4 combustion reactions 91 3.5 stoichiometric calculations and the carbon cycle 94 3.6 determining empirical formulas from percent composition 97 3.7 empirical and molecular formulas compared 103 Mass spectrometry and molecular mass 105 Using percent composition and mass spectra to determine molecular formulas 107 3.8 combustion analysis 109 3.9 limiting reactants and percent yield 112 Calculations involving limiting reactants 113 Actual yields versus theoretical yields 115 Descriptive chemistry: hydrogen and helium: the bulk of the universe 116 Summary 119 Problem-solving summary 120 Visual problems 121 Questions and problems 121 4 solution chemistry and the hydrosphere 129 A look ahead the constant ocean 130 4.1 earth: the water planet 130 4.2 solution concentration and molarity 134 4.3 dilutions 140 4.4 electrolytes and nonelectrolytes 143 4.5 acid-base reactions 145 4.6 precipitation reactions 148 Making insoluble salts 149 Using precipitation in analysis 151 Saturated solutions and supersaturation 153 4.7 ion exchange 154 4.8 oxidation-reduction reactions 157 Oxidation numbers 157 Examples of redox reactions 159 Balancing redox reactions using half-reactions 161 Redox in nature 164 4.9 titrations 167 Descriptive chemistry: calcium: in the limelight 170 Summary 172 Problem-solving summary 172 Visual problems 173 Questions and problems 174 5 thermochemistry 183 A look ahead the sunlight unwinding 184 5.1 energy: basic concepts and definitions 184 Heat transfer and temperature 185 Work, potential energy, and kinetic energy 185 Kinetic energy and potential energy at the molecular level 188 5.2 systems, surroundings, and the flow of energy 191 Isolated, closed, and open systems 191 Heat flow 192 Units of energy 197 5.3 enthalpy and enthalpy changes 200 5.4 heating curves and heat capacity 201 Hot soup on a cold day 201 Cold drinks on a hot day 206 5.5 calorimetry: measuring heat capacity and calorimeter constants 209 Determining heat capacity and specific heat 209 Calorimeter constants 211 5.6 enthalpies of formation and enthalpies of reaction 213 5.7 fuel values and food values 218 Fuel value 218 Food value 219 5.8 hess's law 221 Descriptive chemistry: carbon: diamonds, graphite, and the molecules of life 226 Summary 228 Problem-solving summary 228 Visual problems 229 Questions and problems 231 6 properties of gases: the air we breathe 237 A look ahead an invisible necessity 238 6.1 the gas phase 238 6.2 atmospheric pressure 240 6.3 the gas laws 246 Boyle's law: relating pressure and volume 246 Charles's law: relating volume and temperature 249 Avogadro's law: relating volume and moles of gas 252 Amontons's law: relating pressure and temperature 252 6.4 the ideal gas law 255 6.5 gas density 260 6.6 dalton's law and mixtures of gases 265 6.7 the kinetic molecular theory of gases and graham's law 270 Explaining boyle's, dalton's, and avogadro's laws 271 Explaining charles's and amontons's laws 272 Molecular speeds and kinetic energy 273 Graham's law: effusion and diffusion 276 6.8 real gases 278 Deviations from ideality 278 The van der waals equation for real gases 280 Descriptive chemistry: nitrogen: feeding plants and inflating air bags 282 Summary 284 Problem-solving summary 284 Visual problems 285 Questions and problems 288 7 electrons in atoms and periodic properties 297 A look ahead can nature be as absurd as it seems? 298 7.1 waves of light 299 Properties of waves 299 The behavior of waves 301 Colors missing from sunlight 302 The expanding universe 303 7.2 atomic spectra 304 7.3 particles of light and quantum theory 306 Quantum theory 306 The photoelectric effect 307 7.4 the hydrogen spectrum and the bohr model 310 Lines in the hydrogen spectrum 310 The bohr model of hydrogen 311 Energies of photons and electron transitions 313 7.5 electrons as waves 315 De broglie wavelengths 315 The heisenberg uncertainty principle 318 7.6 quantum numbers and electron spin 320 7.7 the size and shape of atomic orbitals 325 S orbitals 325 P and d orbitals 327 7.8 the periodic table and filling in the orbitals of multielectron atoms 328 7.9 electron configurations of ions 333 Ions of main group elements 333 Transition metal ions 335 7.10 the sizes of atoms and ions 337 Orbital penetration and effective nuclear charge 338 Trends in atom and ion sizes 338 7.11 ionization energies 340 Descriptive chemistry: a noble family: special status for special behavior 344 Summary 347 Problems-solving summary 348 Visual problems 349 Questions and problems 349 8 chemical bonding and atmospheric molecules 355 A look ahead take a deep breath 356 8.1 ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds 357 8.2 an introduction to lewis theory 358 Lewis structures for molecules with single bonds 358 Lewis structures of molecules with multiple bonds 363 Lewis structures of ionic compounds 366 8.3 unequal sharing, electronegativity, and other periodic properties 367 Electronegativity 367 Bond polarity 371 8.4 resonance 374 8.5 formal charges: choosing among lewis structures 377 8.6 exceptions to the octet rule 381 Molecules with less than an octet 381 Molecules with more than an octet 382 Odd-electron molecules 385 8.7 the length and strength of bonds 388 Bond length 388 Bond energies 389 Descriptive chemistry: fluorine and oxygen: location, location, location 392 Summary 394 Problem-solving summary 394 Visual problems 395 Questions and problems 397 9 molecular geometry and bonding theories 405 A look ahead aromas, pharmaceuticals, and the greenhouse effect 406 9.1 molecular shape 406 9.2 valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory 408 Central atoms with no lone pairs 408 Central atoms with lone pairs and bonding pairs of electrons 413 9.3 polar bonds and polar molecules 420 9.4 valence bond theory 424 Orbital overlap and hybridization 425 Tetrahedral geometry: sp3 hybrid orbitals 427 Linear geometry: sp hybrid orbitals 430 Octahedral and trigonal bipyramidal geometry: sp3d2 and sp3d hybrid orbitals 432 9.5 shapes and bonding in larger molecules 435 9.6 molecular orbital (mo) theory 438 Molecular orbitals of h2 439 Molecular orbitals of homonuclear diatomic molecules 441 Molecular orbitals for n2+ and spectra of auroras 448 9.7 a bonding retrospective 449 Descriptive chemistry: from alcohol to asparagus: the nose knows 450 Summary 452 Problem-solving summary 453 Visual problems 453 Questions and problems 454 10 forces between ions and molecules and colligative properties 461 A look ahead a breath of fresh air 462 10.1 sea spray and salts 463 Ion-ion interactions and lattice energy 464 Calculating lattice energies with a born-haber cycle 468 10.2 attractive forces between polar molecules 472 Ion-dipole interactions 472 Dipole-dipole interactions 473 10.3 dispersion forces 476 10.4 real gases revisited 480 10.5 polarity and solubility 481 Calculating the solubility of gases in water: henry's law 482 Combinations of attractive forces 484 10.6 vapor pressure 485 Seawater versus pure water 486 Vapor pressures of solutions: raoult's law 488 10.7 phase diagrams: intermolecular forces at work 490 Physical states and phase transformations 490 Reading a phase diagram 491 10.8 the remarkable behavior of water and properties of liquids 492 Surface tension and viscosity 493 Water and aquatic life 495 10.9 colligative properties of solutions 496 Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression 496 The van't hoff factor 500 Osmosis and osmotic pressure 504 Reverse osmosis 507 10.10 measuring the molar mass of a solute using colligative properties 509 Descriptive chemistry: the salt of the earth 512 Summary 514 Problem-solving summary 514 Visual problems 516 Questions and problems 517 11 the chemistry of solids 523 A look ahead stronger, tougher, harder 524 11.1 metallic bonds and conducting bands 525 11.2 semimetals and semiconductors 527 11.3 metallic crystals 528 Stacking patterns 528 Packing structures and unit cells 529 Unit cell dimensions 531 11.4 alloys 535 Substitutional alloys 535 Interstitial alloys 536 11.5 aluminum and its alloys: light weight and high performance 540 11.6 the structures of some nonmetals 542 11.7 salt crystals: ionic solids 544 11.8 ceramics: insulators to superconductors 547 Polymorphs of silica 547 Ionic silicates 548 From clay to ceramic 550 Structure and bonding: superconductors 551 11.9 x-ray diffraction: how we know crystal structure 553 Descriptive chemistry: silicon, silica, silicates, silicone: what's in a name? 556 Summary 558 Problem-solving summary 558 Visual problems 559 Questions and problems 561 12 organic chemistry: fuels and materials xxx A look ahead the stuff of daily life xxx 12.1 carbon: the scope of organic chemistry xxx Families based on functional groups xxx Small molecules, oligomers, and polymers xxx Small molecules versus polymers: physical properties xxx 12.2 hydrocarbons xxx Alkanes: physical properties and structure xxx Drawing organic molecules xxx Structural isomers xxx Naming alkanes xxx Cycloalkanes xxx 12.3 sources of alkanes xxx Volatility and the clausius-clapeyron equation xxx Volatility at work: fractionating crude oil xxx Cuts of crude oil xxx 12.4 alkenes and alkynes xxx Chemical reactivities of alkenes and alkynes xxx Isomers xxx Polymers of alkenes xxx 12.5 aromatic compounds xxx Structural isomers of aromatic compounds xxx Polymers containing aromatic rings xxx 12.6 alcohols, ethers, and reformulated gasoline xxx Alcohols: methanol and ethanol xxx Ethers: diethyl ether xxx Polymers of alcohols and ethers xxx 12.7 more oxygen-containing functional groups: aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic Acids, esters, amides xxx Aldehydes and ketones xxx Carboxylic acids, esters, and amides xxx Polyesters and polyamides xxx 12.8 hydrocarbon fuels from biomass xxx Methane from plants xxx Amines xxx A final note xxx Summary xxx Problem-solving summary xxx Visual problems xxx Questions and problems xxx 13 thermodynamics: spontaneous processes, entropy, and free energy xxx A look ahead the game of energy xxx 13.1 spontaneous processes and entropy xxx Entropy and microstates: flat tires xxx Statistical entropy: a mathematical view of microstates xxx 13.2 thermodynamic entropy xxx Isothermal and nonisothermal processes xxx A closer look at reversible processes xxx Entropy changes for other common processes xxx 13.3 absolute entropy, the third law of thermodynamics, and structure xxx 13.4 calculating entropy changes in chemical reactions xxx 13.5 free energy and free-energy changes xxx Determining the entropy change in the universe xxx The meaning of free energy xxx Calculating free-energy changes xxx Temperature, spontaneity, and free energy xxx 13.6 driving the human engine: coupled reactions xxx Summary xxx Problem-solving summary xxx Visual problems xxx Questions and problems xxx 14 chemical kinetics xxx A look ahead how quickly can we clean the air? Xxx 14.1 cars, trucks, and air quality xxx 14.2 reaction rates xxx Rate units and relative reaction rates xxx Experimentally determined rates: actual values xxx Average reaction rates and the formation of no xxx Instantaneous reaction rates and the formation of no2 xxx 14.3 effect of concentration on reaction rate xxx Reaction order, rate constants, units, and initial rates xxx Deriving a rate law from a single experiment xxx Reaction half-lives xxx Second-order reactions xxx Pseudo-first-order reactions xxx Zero-order reactions xxx 14.4 reaction rates, temperature, and the arrhenius equation xxx 14.5 reaction mechanisms xxx Elementary steps xxx Rate laws and reaction mechanisms xxx Mechanisms and zero-order reactions xxx 14.6 catalysts xxx Catalysts and the ozone layer xxx Catalysts and catalytic converters xxx Descriptive chemistry: the platinum group: catalysts, jewelry, and investment xxx Summary xxx Problem-solving summary xxx Visual problems xxx Questions and problems xxx 15 chemical equilibrium xxx A look ahead the eyes have it xxx 15.1 understanding equilibrium: a qualitative view xxx 15.2 the equilibrium constant expression and k xxx Writing the equilibrium constant expression xxx Calculating values of kc and kp xxx Relationships of kc to kp xxx 15.3 manipulating equilibrium constant expressions xxx K for reverse reactions xxx K for equations multiplied by a number xxx K for combined equations xxx 15.4 equilibrium constants and reaction quotients xxx 15.5 equilibrium and thermodynamics xxx 15.6 heterogeneous equilibria xxx 15.7 le chatelier's principle xxx Effects of adding or removing reactants or products xxx Effect of changes in pressure and volume xxx Effect of temperature xxx Catalysts and equilibrium xxx 15.8 calculations based on k xxx 15.9 changing k with changing temperature xxx Summary xxx Problem-solving summary xxx Visual problems xxx Questions and problems xxx 16 equilibrium in the aqueous phase xxx A look ahead a balancing act xxx 16.1 acids and bases xxx 16.2 the bronsted-lowry model xxx Strong and weak acids xxx Conjugate acid-base pairs xxx Strong and weak bases xxx Relative strengths of acids and bases xxx 16.3 ph and the autoionization of water xxx The ph scale xxx Poh xxx 16.4 calculations with ph and k xxx Weak acids xxx Weak bases xxx 16.5 polyprotic acids xxx 16.6 acid strength and molecular structure xxx 16.7 ph of salt solutions xxx 16.8 the common-ion effect 16.9 buffers xxx An environmental buffer xxx A physiological buffer xxx Range and capacity xxx 16.10 acid-base titrations and indicators xxx Acid-base titrations xxx Alkalinity titrations xxx Descriptive chemistry: the chemistry of two strong acids: sulfuric and nitric acids Xxx Summary xxx Problem-solving summary xxx Visual problems xxx Questions and problems xxx 17 the colorful chemistry of transition metals xxx A look ahead the company they keep xxx 17.1 lewis acids and bases xxx 17.2 complex ions xxx 17.3 complex-ion equilibria xxx 17.4 hydrated metal ions as acids xxx 17.5 solubilities of compounds and ksp xxx 17.6 polydentate ligands xxx 17.7 ligand strength and the chelation effect xxx 17.8 crystal field theory xxx 17.9 magnetism and spin states xxx 17.10 naming complex ions and coordination compounds xxx 17.11 isomerism in coordination compounds xxx Geometric isomers xxx Enantiomers xxx 17.12 metal complexes in biomolecules xxx Summary xxx Problem-solving summary xxx Visual problems xxx Questions and problems xxx 18 electrochemistry and electric cars xxx A look ahead 100 mpg: charging up hybrid cars xxx 18.1 redox chemistry revisited xxx 18.2 electrochemical cells xxx 18.3 chemical energy and electrical work xxx 18.4 standard potentials (e?) Xxx 18.5 a reference point: the standard hydrogen electrode xxx 18.6 the effect of concentration on ecell xxx The nernst equation xxx Equilibrium and dead batteries xxx 18.7 quantities of reactants and battery life xxx Nickel-metal hydride batteries xxx Lithium-ion batteries xxx 18.8 electrolytic cells and rechargeable batteriess xxx 18.9 fuel cells xxx Descriptive chemistry: the chemistry of the group 12 elements xxx Summary xxx Problem-solving summary xxx Visual problems xxx Questions and problems xxx 19 biochemistry: the compounds of life xxx A look ahead the long and the short of it xxx 19.1 molecules and structure: building blocks of life xxx Individual molecules: small molecule subunits xxx Formation of polymers and organized assemblies xxx 19.2 a feature of molecules in nature: chirality xxx 19.3 protein composition xxx 19.4 protein structure and function xxx Primary structure xxx Secondary structure xxx Tertiary and quaternary structure xxx Proteins as catalysts: enzymes xxx 19.5 carbohydrates xxx Molecular structures of glucose and fructose xxx Disaccharides and polysaccharides xxx Photosynthesis and biomass xxx 19.6 lipids xxx Function and metabolism of lipids xxx Other types of lipids xxx 19.7 nucleotides and nucleic acids xxx Components and structure xxx From dna to protein xxx An additional role for ribonucleotide monomers: energy and metabolism Xxx Summary xxx Problem-solving summary xxx Visual problems xxx Questions and problems xxx 20 nuclear chemistry xxx A look ahead alchemy in the 21st century xxx 20.1 nuclear chemistry xxx 20.2 radioactive decay xxx 20.3 hydrogen fusion xxx 20.4 nuclear binding energies xxx 20.5 synthesis of heavy elements xxx 20.6 the belt of stability xxx 20.7 artificial nuclides xxx 20.8 nuclear fission xxx 20.9 measuring radioactivity xxx 20.10 biological effects of radioactivity xxx Radiation dosage xxx Assessing the risks of radiation xxx 20.11 medical applications of radioactivity xxx Radiation therapy xxx Medical imaging xxx 20.12 radiochemical dating xxx Descriptive chemistry: too hot to handle: radon, radium, and uranium xxx Summary xxx Problem-solving summary xxx Visual problems xxx Questions and problems xxx 21 life and the periodic table xxx A look ahead what elements do we find in our bodies? Xxx 21.1 the periodic table of life xxx 21.2 bulk main group elements xxx Alkali metals xxx Alkaline earth metals xxx Chlorine xxx 21.3 trace and ultratrace elements xxx Main group elements xxx Transition elements xxx 21.4 diagnosis and therapy xxx Diagnosis of disease xxx Therapeutic applications xxx Medical devices and materials xxx 21.5 toxic metals xxx Summary xxx Problem-solving summary xxx Visual problems xxx Questions and problems xxx ER -