| Formatted contents note |
Contents <br/>1 matter, energy, and the origins of the universe 1<br/>A look ahead blinded by the sun 2<br/>1.1 chemistry and the classes of matter 3<br/>1.2 matter: an atomic view 6<br/>1.3 mixtures and how to separate them 8<br/>1.4 properties of matter 10<br/>1.5 a method for answering questions and solving problems 11<br/>1.6 states of matter 13<br/>1.7 the scientific method: starting off with a bang 16<br/>1.8 making measurements and expressing the results 18<br/>Si units 18<br/>Significant figures 20<br/>Significant figures in calculations 21<br/>Precision and accuracy 26<br/>1.9 unit conversions and dimensional analysis 27<br/>1.10 testing a hypothesis: the big bang revisited 30<br/>Temperature scales 30<br/>An echo of the big bang 33<br/>Summary 35<br/>Problem-solving summary 35<br/>Visual problems 36<br/>Questions and problems 37<br/>2 atoms, ions, and compounds 41<br/>A look ahead when artillery shells bounced off tissue paper 42<br/>2.1 elements of the solar system 42<br/>2.2 compounds and earth's early atmosphere 44<br/>2.3 the rutherford model of atomic structure 46<br/>Electrons 46<br/>Radioactivity and the nuclear atom 48<br/>Protons and neutrons 49<br/>2.4 isotopes 50<br/>2.5 average atomic masses 52<br/>2.6 the periodic table of the elements 54<br/>Mendeleev's periodic table 54<br/>Navigating the modern periodic table 55<br/>2.7 trends in compound formation 58<br/>2.8 naming compounds and writing their formulas 60<br/>Binary molecular compounds 60<br/>Binary ionic compounds 61<br/>Binary compounds of transition metals 63<br/>Polyatomic ions 64<br/>Acids 66<br/>2.9 nucleosynthesis 67<br/>Early nucleosynthesis 67<br/>Stellar nucleosynthesis 69<br/>Summary 72<br/>Problem-solving summary 72<br/>Visual problems 73<br/>Questions and problems 74<br/>3 chemical reactions and earth's composition 80<br/>A look ahead purple salt and bottled water 81<br/>3.1 composition of earth 81<br/>3.2 the mole 82<br/>Molar mass 83<br/>Molecular masses and formula masses 85<br/>Moles and chemical equations 87<br/>3.3 writing balanced chemical equations 88<br/>3.4 combustion reactions 91<br/>3.5 stoichiometric calculations and the carbon cycle 94<br/>3.6 determining empirical formulas from percent composition 97<br/>3.7 empirical and molecular formulas compared 103<br/>Mass spectrometry and molecular mass 105<br/>Using percent composition and mass spectra to determine molecular formulas<br/>107<br/>3.8 combustion analysis 109<br/>3.9 limiting reactants and percent yield 112<br/>Calculations involving limiting reactants 113<br/>Actual yields versus theoretical yields 115<br/>Descriptive chemistry: hydrogen and helium: the bulk of the universe 116<br/>Summary 119<br/>Problem-solving summary 120<br/>Visual problems 121<br/>Questions and problems 121<br/>4 solution chemistry and the hydrosphere 129<br/>A look ahead the constant ocean 130<br/>4.1 earth: the water planet 130<br/>4.2 solution concentration and molarity 134<br/>4.3 dilutions 140<br/>4.4 electrolytes and nonelectrolytes 143<br/>4.5 acid-base reactions 145<br/>4.6 precipitation reactions 148<br/>Making insoluble salts 149<br/>Using precipitation in analysis 151<br/>Saturated solutions and supersaturation 153<br/>4.7 ion exchange 154<br/>4.8 oxidation-reduction reactions 157<br/>Oxidation numbers 157<br/>Examples of redox reactions 159<br/>Balancing redox reactions using half-reactions 161<br/>Redox in nature 164<br/>4.9 titrations 167<br/>Descriptive chemistry: calcium: in the limelight 170<br/>Summary 172<br/>Problem-solving summary 172<br/>Visual problems 173<br/>Questions and problems 174<br/>5 thermochemistry 183 <br/>A look ahead the sunlight unwinding 184<br/>5.1 energy: basic concepts and definitions 184<br/>Heat transfer and temperature 185<br/>Work, potential energy, and kinetic energy 185<br/>Kinetic energy and potential energy at the molecular level 188<br/>5.2 systems, surroundings, and the flow of energy 191<br/>Isolated, closed, and open systems 191<br/>Heat flow 192<br/>Units of energy 197 <br/>5.3 enthalpy and enthalpy changes 200<br/>5.4 heating curves and heat capacity 201<br/>Hot soup on a cold day 201<br/>Cold drinks on a hot day 206<br/>5.5 calorimetry: measuring heat capacity and calorimeter constants 209<br/>Determining heat capacity and specific heat 209<br/>Calorimeter constants 211<br/>5.6 enthalpies of formation and enthalpies of reaction 213<br/>5.7 fuel values and food values 218<br/>Fuel value 218<br/>Food value 219<br/>5.8 hess's law 221<br/>Descriptive chemistry: carbon: diamonds, graphite, and the molecules of life 226<br/>Summary 228<br/>Problem-solving summary 228<br/>Visual problems 229<br/>Questions and problems 231<br/>6 properties of gases: the air we breathe 237<br/>A look ahead an invisible necessity 238<br/>6.1 the gas phase 238<br/>6.2 atmospheric pressure 240<br/>6.3 the gas laws 246<br/>Boyle's law: relating pressure and volume 246<br/>Charles's law: relating volume and temperature 249<br/>Avogadro's law: relating volume and moles of gas 252<br/>Amontons's law: relating pressure and temperature 252<br/>6.4 the ideal gas law 255<br/>6.5 gas density 260<br/>6.6 dalton's law and mixtures of gases 265<br/>6.7 the kinetic molecular theory of gases and graham's law 270<br/>Explaining boyle's, dalton's, and avogadro's laws 271<br/>Explaining charles's and amontons's laws 272<br/>Molecular speeds and kinetic energy 273<br/>Graham's law: effusion and diffusion 276<br/>6.8 real gases 278<br/>Deviations from ideality 278<br/>The van der waals equation for real gases 280<br/>Descriptive chemistry: nitrogen: feeding plants and inflating air bags 282<br/>Summary 284<br/>Problem-solving summary 284<br/>Visual problems 285<br/>Questions and problems 288<br/>7 electrons in atoms and periodic properties 297<br/>A look ahead can nature be as absurd as it seems? 298<br/>7.1 waves of light 299<br/>Properties of waves 299<br/>The behavior of waves 301<br/>Colors missing from sunlight 302<br/>The expanding universe 303<br/>7.2 atomic spectra 304<br/>7.3 particles of light and quantum theory 306<br/>Quantum theory 306<br/>The photoelectric effect 307<br/>7.4 the hydrogen spectrum and the bohr model 310<br/>Lines in the hydrogen spectrum 310<br/>The bohr model of hydrogen 311<br/>Energies of photons and electron transitions 313<br/>7.5 electrons as waves 315<br/>De broglie wavelengths 315<br/>The heisenberg uncertainty principle 318<br/>7.6 quantum numbers and electron spin 320<br/>7.7 the size and shape of atomic orbitals 325<br/>S orbitals 325<br/>P and d orbitals 327<br/>7.8 the periodic table and filling in the orbitals of multielectron atoms 328<br/>7.9 electron configurations of ions 333<br/>Ions of main group elements 333<br/>Transition metal ions 335<br/>7.10 the sizes of atoms and ions 337<br/>Orbital penetration and effective nuclear charge 338<br/>Trends in atom and ion sizes 338<br/>7.11 ionization energies 340<br/>Descriptive chemistry: a noble family: special status for special behavior 344<br/>Summary 347<br/>Problems-solving summary 348<br/>Visual problems 349<br/>Questions and problems 349<br/>8 chemical bonding and atmospheric molecules 355<br/>A look ahead take a deep breath 356<br/>8.1 ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds 357<br/>8.2 an introduction to lewis theory 358<br/>Lewis structures for molecules with single bonds 358<br/>Lewis structures of molecules with multiple bonds 363<br/>Lewis structures of ionic compounds 366<br/>8.3 unequal sharing, electronegativity, and other periodic properties 367<br/>Electronegativity 367<br/>Bond polarity 371<br/>8.4 resonance 374<br/>8.5 formal charges: choosing among lewis structures 377<br/>8.6 exceptions to the octet rule 381<br/>Molecules with less than an octet 381<br/>Molecules with more than an octet 382<br/>Odd-electron molecules 385<br/>8.7 the length and strength of bonds 388<br/>Bond length 388<br/>Bond energies 389<br/>Descriptive chemistry: fluorine and oxygen: location, location, location 392<br/>Summary 394<br/>Problem-solving summary 394<br/>Visual problems 395<br/>Questions and problems 397<br/>9 molecular geometry and bonding theories 405<br/>A look ahead aromas, pharmaceuticals, and the greenhouse effect 406<br/>9.1 molecular shape 406<br/>9.2 valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory 408<br/>Central atoms with no lone pairs 408<br/>Central atoms with lone pairs and bonding pairs of electrons 413<br/>9.3 polar bonds and polar molecules 420<br/>9.4 valence bond theory 424<br/>Orbital overlap and hybridization 425<br/>Tetrahedral geometry: sp3 hybrid orbitals 427<br/>Linear geometry: sp hybrid orbitals 430<br/>Octahedral and trigonal bipyramidal geometry: sp3d2 and sp3d hybrid orbitals<br/>432<br/>9.5 shapes and bonding in larger molecules 435<br/>9.6 molecular orbital (mo) theory 438<br/>Molecular orbitals of h2 439<br/>Molecular orbitals of homonuclear diatomic molecules 441<br/>Molecular orbitals for n2+ and spectra of auroras 448<br/>9.7 a bonding retrospective 449<br/>Descriptive chemistry: from alcohol to asparagus: the nose knows 450<br/>Summary 452<br/>Problem-solving summary 453<br/>Visual problems 453<br/>Questions and problems 454<br/>10 forces between ions and molecules and colligative properties 461<br/>A look ahead a breath of fresh air 462<br/>10.1 sea spray and salts 463<br/>Ion-ion interactions and lattice energy 464<br/>Calculating lattice energies with a born-haber cycle 468<br/>10.2 attractive forces between polar molecules 472<br/>Ion-dipole interactions 472<br/>Dipole-dipole interactions 473<br/>10.3 dispersion forces 476<br/>10.4 real gases revisited 480<br/>10.5 polarity and solubility 481<br/>Calculating the solubility of gases in water: henry's law 482<br/>Combinations of attractive forces 484<br/>10.6 vapor pressure 485<br/>Seawater versus pure water 486<br/>Vapor pressures of solutions: raoult's law 488<br/>10.7 phase diagrams: intermolecular forces at work 490<br/>Physical states and phase transformations 490<br/>Reading a phase diagram 491<br/>10.8 the remarkable behavior of water and properties of liquids 492<br/>Surface tension and viscosity 493<br/>Water and aquatic life 495<br/>10.9 colligative properties of solutions 496<br/>Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression 496<br/>The van't hoff factor 500<br/>Osmosis and osmotic pressure 504<br/>Reverse osmosis 507<br/>10.10 measuring the molar mass of a solute using colligative properties 509<br/>Descriptive chemistry: the salt of the earth 512<br/>Summary 514<br/>Problem-solving summary 514<br/>Visual problems 516<br/>Questions and problems 517<br/>11 the chemistry of solids 523<br/>A look ahead stronger, tougher, harder 524<br/>11.1 metallic bonds and conducting bands 525<br/>11.2 semimetals and semiconductors 527<br/>11.3 metallic crystals 528<br/>Stacking patterns 528<br/>Packing structures and unit cells 529<br/>Unit cell dimensions 531<br/>11.4 alloys 535<br/>Substitutional alloys 535<br/>Interstitial alloys 536<br/>11.5 aluminum and its alloys: light weight and high performance 540<br/>11.6 the structures of some nonmetals 542<br/>11.7 salt crystals: ionic solids 544<br/>11.8 ceramics: insulators to superconductors 547<br/>Polymorphs of silica 547<br/>Ionic silicates 548<br/>From clay to ceramic 550<br/>Structure and bonding: superconductors 551<br/>11.9 x-ray diffraction: how we know crystal structure 553<br/>Descriptive chemistry: silicon, silica, silicates, silicone: what's in a name? 556<br/>Summary 558<br/>Problem-solving summary 558<br/>Visual problems 559<br/>Questions and problems 561<br/>12 organic chemistry: fuels and materials xxx<br/>A look ahead the stuff of daily life xxx<br/>12.1 carbon: the scope of organic chemistry xxx<br/>Families based on functional groups xxx<br/>Small molecules, oligomers, and polymers xxx<br/>Small molecules versus polymers: physical properties xxx<br/>12.2 hydrocarbons xxx<br/>Alkanes: physical properties and structure xxx<br/>Drawing organic molecules xxx<br/>Structural isomers xxx<br/>Naming alkanes xxx<br/>Cycloalkanes xxx<br/>12.3 sources of alkanes xxx<br/>Volatility and the clausius-clapeyron equation xxx<br/>Volatility at work: fractionating crude oil xxx<br/>Cuts of crude oil xxx<br/>12.4 alkenes and alkynes xxx<br/>Chemical reactivities of alkenes and alkynes xxx<br/>Isomers xxx<br/>Polymers of alkenes xxx<br/>12.5 aromatic compounds xxx<br/>Structural isomers of aromatic compounds xxx<br/>Polymers containing aromatic rings xxx<br/>12.6 alcohols, ethers, and reformulated gasoline xxx<br/>Alcohols: methanol and ethanol xxx<br/>Ethers: diethyl ether xxx<br/>Polymers of alcohols and ethers xxx<br/>12.7 more oxygen-containing functional groups: aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic <br/>Acids, esters, amides xxx<br/>Aldehydes and ketones xxx<br/>Carboxylic acids, esters, and amides xxx<br/>Polyesters and polyamides xxx<br/>12.8 hydrocarbon fuels from biomass xxx<br/>Methane from plants xxx<br/>Amines xxx<br/>A final note xxx<br/>Summary xxx<br/>Problem-solving summary xxx<br/>Visual problems xxx<br/>Questions and problems xxx<br/>13 thermodynamics: spontaneous processes, entropy, and free energy xxx<br/>A look ahead the game of energy xxx<br/>13.1 spontaneous processes and entropy xxx<br/>Entropy and microstates: flat tires xxx<br/>Statistical entropy: a mathematical view of microstates xxx<br/>13.2 thermodynamic entropy xxx<br/>Isothermal and nonisothermal processes xxx<br/>A closer look at reversible processes xxx<br/>Entropy changes for other common processes xxx<br/>13.3 absolute entropy, the third law of thermodynamics, and structure xxx<br/>13.4 calculating entropy changes in chemical reactions xxx<br/>13.5 free energy and free-energy changes xxx<br/>Determining the entropy change in the universe xxx<br/>The meaning of free energy xxx<br/>Calculating free-energy changes xxx<br/>Temperature, spontaneity, and free energy xxx<br/>13.6 driving the human engine: coupled reactions xxx<br/>Summary xxx<br/>Problem-solving summary xxx<br/>Visual problems xxx<br/>Questions and problems xxx<br/>14 chemical kinetics xxx<br/>A look ahead how quickly can we clean the air? Xxx<br/>14.1 cars, trucks, and air quality xxx<br/>14.2 reaction rates xxx<br/>Rate units and relative reaction rates xxx<br/>Experimentally determined rates: actual values xxx<br/>Average reaction rates and the formation of no xxx<br/>Instantaneous reaction rates and the formation of no2 xxx<br/>14.3 effect of concentration on reaction rate xxx<br/>Reaction order, rate constants, units, and initial rates xxx<br/>Deriving a rate law from a single experiment xxx<br/>Reaction half-lives xxx<br/>Second-order reactions xxx<br/>Pseudo-first-order reactions xxx<br/>Zero-order reactions xxx<br/>14.4 reaction rates, temperature, and the arrhenius equation xxx<br/>14.5 reaction mechanisms xxx<br/>Elementary steps xxx<br/>Rate laws and reaction mechanisms xxx<br/>Mechanisms and zero-order reactions xxx<br/>14.6 catalysts xxx<br/>Catalysts and the ozone layer xxx<br/>Catalysts and catalytic converters xxx<br/>Descriptive chemistry: the platinum group: catalysts, jewelry, and investment xxx<br/>Summary xxx<br/>Problem-solving summary xxx<br/>Visual problems xxx<br/>Questions and problems xxx<br/>15 chemical equilibrium xxx<br/>A look ahead the eyes have it xxx<br/>15.1 understanding equilibrium: a qualitative view xxx<br/>15.2 the equilibrium constant expression and k xxx<br/>Writing the equilibrium constant expression xxx<br/>Calculating values of kc and kp xxx<br/>Relationships of kc to kp xxx<br/>15.3 manipulating equilibrium constant expressions xxx<br/>K for reverse reactions xxx<br/>K for equations multiplied by a number xxx<br/>K for combined equations xxx<br/>15.4 equilibrium constants and reaction quotients xxx<br/>15.5 equilibrium and thermodynamics xxx<br/>15.6 heterogeneous equilibria xxx<br/>15.7 le chatelier's principle xxx<br/>Effects of adding or removing reactants or products xxx<br/>Effect of changes in pressure and volume xxx<br/>Effect of temperature xxx<br/>Catalysts and equilibrium xxx<br/>15.8 calculations based on k xxx<br/>15.9 changing k with changing temperature xxx<br/>Summary xxx<br/>Problem-solving summary xxx<br/>Visual problems xxx<br/>Questions and problems xxx<br/>16 equilibrium in the aqueous phase xxx<br/>A look ahead a balancing act xxx<br/>16.1 acids and bases xxx<br/>16.2 the bronsted-lowry model xxx<br/>Strong and weak acids xxx<br/>Conjugate acid-base pairs xxx<br/>Strong and weak bases xxx<br/>Relative strengths of acids and bases xxx<br/>16.3 ph and the autoionization of water xxx<br/>The ph scale xxx<br/>Poh xxx<br/>16.4 calculations with ph and k xxx<br/>Weak acids xxx<br/>Weak bases xxx<br/>16.5 polyprotic acids xxx<br/>16.6 acid strength and molecular structure xxx<br/>16.7 ph of salt solutions xxx<br/>16.8 the common-ion effect<br/>16.9 buffers xxx<br/>An environmental buffer xxx<br/>A physiological buffer xxx<br/>Range and capacity xxx<br/>16.10 acid-base titrations and indicators xxx<br/>Acid-base titrations xxx<br/>Alkalinity titrations xxx<br/>Descriptive chemistry: the chemistry of two strong acids: sulfuric and nitric acids<br/>Xxx<br/>Summary xxx<br/>Problem-solving summary xxx<br/>Visual problems xxx<br/>Questions and problems xxx<br/>17 the colorful chemistry of transition metals xxx<br/>A look ahead the company they keep xxx<br/>17.1 lewis acids and bases xxx<br/>17.2 complex ions xxx<br/>17.3 complex-ion equilibria xxx<br/>17.4 hydrated metal ions as acids xxx<br/>17.5 solubilities of compounds and ksp xxx<br/>17.6 polydentate ligands xxx<br/>17.7 ligand strength and the chelation effect xxx<br/>17.8 crystal field theory xxx<br/>17.9 magnetism and spin states xxx<br/>17.10 naming complex ions and coordination compounds xxx<br/>17.11 isomerism in coordination compounds xxx<br/>Geometric isomers xxx<br/>Enantiomers xxx<br/>17.12 metal complexes in biomolecules xxx<br/>Summary xxx<br/>Problem-solving summary xxx<br/>Visual problems xxx<br/>Questions and problems xxx<br/>18 electrochemistry and electric cars xxx<br/>A look ahead 100 mpg: charging up hybrid cars xxx<br/>18.1 redox chemistry revisited xxx<br/>18.2 electrochemical cells xxx<br/>18.3 chemical energy and electrical work xxx<br/>18.4 standard potentials (e?) Xxx<br/>18.5 a reference point: the standard hydrogen electrode xxx<br/>18.6 the effect of concentration on ecell xxx<br/>The nernst equation xxx<br/>Equilibrium and dead batteries xxx<br/>18.7 quantities of reactants and battery life xxx<br/>Nickel-metal hydride batteries xxx<br/>Lithium-ion batteries xxx<br/>18.8 electrolytic cells and rechargeable batteriess xxx<br/>18.9 fuel cells xxx<br/>Descriptive chemistry: the chemistry of the group 12 elements xxx<br/>Summary xxx<br/>Problem-solving summary xxx<br/>Visual problems xxx<br/>Questions and problems xxx<br/>19 biochemistry: the compounds of life xxx<br/>A look ahead the long and the short of it xxx<br/>19.1 molecules and structure: building blocks of life xxx<br/>Individual molecules: small molecule subunits xxx<br/>Formation of polymers and organized assemblies xxx<br/>19.2 a feature of molecules in nature: chirality xxx<br/>19.3 protein composition xxx<br/>19.4 protein structure and function xxx<br/>Primary structure xxx<br/>Secondary structure xxx<br/>Tertiary and quaternary structure xxx<br/>Proteins as catalysts: enzymes xxx<br/>19.5 carbohydrates xxx<br/>Molecular structures of glucose and fructose xxx<br/>Disaccharides and polysaccharides xxx<br/>Photosynthesis and biomass xxx<br/>19.6 lipids xxx<br/>Function and metabolism of lipids xxx<br/>Other types of lipids xxx<br/>19.7 nucleotides and nucleic acids xxx<br/>Components and structure xxx<br/>From dna to protein xxx<br/>An additional role for ribonucleotide monomers: energy and metabolism<br/>Xxx<br/>Summary xxx<br/>Problem-solving summary xxx<br/>Visual problems xxx<br/>Questions and problems xxx<br/>20 nuclear chemistry xxx<br/>A look ahead alchemy in the 21st century xxx<br/>20.1 nuclear chemistry xxx<br/>20.2 radioactive decay xxx<br/>20.3 hydrogen fusion xxx<br/>20.4 nuclear binding energies xxx<br/>20.5 synthesis of heavy elements xxx<br/>20.6 the belt of stability xxx<br/>20.7 artificial nuclides xxx<br/>20.8 nuclear fission xxx<br/>20.9 measuring radioactivity xxx<br/>20.10 biological effects of radioactivity xxx<br/>Radiation dosage xxx<br/>Assessing the risks of radiation xxx<br/>20.11 medical applications of radioactivity xxx<br/>Radiation therapy xxx<br/>Medical imaging xxx<br/>20.12 radiochemical dating xxx<br/>Descriptive chemistry: too hot to handle: radon, radium, and uranium xxx<br/>Summary xxx<br/>Problem-solving summary xxx<br/>Visual problems xxx<br/>Questions and problems xxx<br/>21 life and the periodic table xxx<br/>A look ahead what elements do we find in our bodies? Xxx<br/>21.1 the periodic table of life xxx<br/>21.2 bulk main group elements xxx<br/>Alkali metals xxx<br/>Alkaline earth metals xxx<br/>Chlorine xxx<br/>21.3 trace and ultratrace elements xxx<br/>Main group elements xxx<br/>Transition elements xxx<br/>21.4 diagnosis and therapy xxx<br/>Diagnosis of disease xxx<br/>Therapeutic applications xxx<br/>Medical devices and materials xxx<br/>21.5 toxic metals xxx<br/>Summary xxx<br/>Problem-solving summary xxx<br/>Visual problems xxx<br/>Questions and problems xxx<br/> |
