Chemistry
Chemistry
- 2nd ed.
- New York : W.W. Norton, 2009
- 1 v. (various pagings) col. ill. ; 29 cm.
Revised ed. of: Chemistry. The science in context / Thomas R. Gilbert, Rein V. Kirss, Geoffrey Davies. c2004. Includes index.
Contents
1 matter, energy, and the origins of the universe 1
A look ahead blinded by the sun 2
1.1 chemistry and the classes of matter 3
1.2 matter: an atomic view 6
1.3 mixtures and how to separate them 8
1.4 properties of matter 10
1.5 a method for answering questions and solving problems 11
1.6 states of matter 13
1.7 the scientific method: starting off with a bang 16
1.8 making measurements and expressing the results 18
Si units 18
Significant figures 20
Significant figures in calculations 21
Precision and accuracy 26
1.9 unit conversions and dimensional analysis 27
1.10 testing a hypothesis: the big bang revisited 30
Temperature scales 30
An echo of the big bang 33
Summary 35
Problem-solving summary 35
Visual problems 36
Questions and problems 37
2 atoms, ions, and compounds 41
A look ahead when artillery shells bounced off tissue paper 42
2.1 elements of the solar system 42
2.2 compounds and earth's early atmosphere 44
2.3 the rutherford model of atomic structure 46
Electrons 46
Radioactivity and the nuclear atom 48
Protons and neutrons 49
2.4 isotopes 50
2.5 average atomic masses 52
2.6 the periodic table of the elements 54
Mendeleev's periodic table 54
Navigating the modern periodic table 55
2.7 trends in compound formation 58
2.8 naming compounds and writing their formulas 60
Binary molecular compounds 60
Binary ionic compounds 61
Binary compounds of transition metals 63
Polyatomic ions 64
Acids 66
2.9 nucleosynthesis 67
Early nucleosynthesis 67
Stellar nucleosynthesis 69
Summary 72
Problem-solving summary 72
Visual problems 73
Questions and problems 74
3 chemical reactions and earth's composition 80
A look ahead purple salt and bottled water 81
3.1 composition of earth 81
3.2 the mole 82
Molar mass 83
Molecular masses and formula masses 85
Moles and chemical equations 87
3.3 writing balanced chemical equations 88
3.4 combustion reactions 91
3.5 stoichiometric calculations and the carbon cycle 94
3.6 determining empirical formulas from percent composition 97
3.7 empirical and molecular formulas compared 103
Mass spectrometry and molecular mass 105
Using percent composition and mass spectra to determine molecular formulas
107
3.8 combustion analysis 109
3.9 limiting reactants and percent yield 112
Calculations involving limiting reactants 113
Actual yields versus theoretical yields 115
Descriptive chemistry: hydrogen and helium: the bulk of the universe 116
Summary 119
Problem-solving summary 120
Visual problems 121
Questions and problems 121
4 solution chemistry and the hydrosphere 129
A look ahead the constant ocean 130
4.1 earth: the water planet 130
4.2 solution concentration and molarity 134
4.3 dilutions 140
4.4 electrolytes and nonelectrolytes 143
4.5 acid-base reactions 145
4.6 precipitation reactions 148
Making insoluble salts 149
Using precipitation in analysis 151
Saturated solutions and supersaturation 153
4.7 ion exchange 154
4.8 oxidation-reduction reactions 157
Oxidation numbers 157
Examples of redox reactions 159
Balancing redox reactions using half-reactions 161
Redox in nature 164
4.9 titrations 167
Descriptive chemistry: calcium: in the limelight 170
Summary 172
Problem-solving summary 172
Visual problems 173
Questions and problems 174
5 thermochemistry 183
A look ahead the sunlight unwinding 184
5.1 energy: basic concepts and definitions 184
Heat transfer and temperature 185
Work, potential energy, and kinetic energy 185
Kinetic energy and potential energy at the molecular level 188
5.2 systems, surroundings, and the flow of energy 191
Isolated, closed, and open systems 191
Heat flow 192
Units of energy 197
5.3 enthalpy and enthalpy changes 200
5.4 heating curves and heat capacity 201
Hot soup on a cold day 201
Cold drinks on a hot day 206
5.5 calorimetry: measuring heat capacity and calorimeter constants 209
Determining heat capacity and specific heat 209
Calorimeter constants 211
5.6 enthalpies of formation and enthalpies of reaction 213
5.7 fuel values and food values 218
Fuel value 218
Food value 219
5.8 hess's law 221
Descriptive chemistry: carbon: diamonds, graphite, and the molecules of life 226
Summary 228
Problem-solving summary 228
Visual problems 229
Questions and problems 231
6 properties of gases: the air we breathe 237
A look ahead an invisible necessity 238
6.1 the gas phase 238
6.2 atmospheric pressure 240
6.3 the gas laws 246
Boyle's law: relating pressure and volume 246
Charles's law: relating volume and temperature 249
Avogadro's law: relating volume and moles of gas 252
Amontons's law: relating pressure and temperature 252
6.4 the ideal gas law 255
6.5 gas density 260
6.6 dalton's law and mixtures of gases 265
6.7 the kinetic molecular theory of gases and graham's law 270
Explaining boyle's, dalton's, and avogadro's laws 271
Explaining charles's and amontons's laws 272
Molecular speeds and kinetic energy 273
Graham's law: effusion and diffusion 276
6.8 real gases 278
Deviations from ideality 278
The van der waals equation for real gases 280
Descriptive chemistry: nitrogen: feeding plants and inflating air bags 282
Summary 284
Problem-solving summary 284
Visual problems 285
Questions and problems 288
7 electrons in atoms and periodic properties 297
A look ahead can nature be as absurd as it seems? 298
7.1 waves of light 299
Properties of waves 299
The behavior of waves 301
Colors missing from sunlight 302
The expanding universe 303
7.2 atomic spectra 304
7.3 particles of light and quantum theory 306
Quantum theory 306
The photoelectric effect 307
7.4 the hydrogen spectrum and the bohr model 310
Lines in the hydrogen spectrum 310
The bohr model of hydrogen 311
Energies of photons and electron transitions 313
7.5 electrons as waves 315
De broglie wavelengths 315
The heisenberg uncertainty principle 318
7.6 quantum numbers and electron spin 320
7.7 the size and shape of atomic orbitals 325
S orbitals 325
P and d orbitals 327
7.8 the periodic table and filling in the orbitals of multielectron atoms 328
7.9 electron configurations of ions 333
Ions of main group elements 333
Transition metal ions 335
7.10 the sizes of atoms and ions 337
Orbital penetration and effective nuclear charge 338
Trends in atom and ion sizes 338
7.11 ionization energies 340
Descriptive chemistry: a noble family: special status for special behavior 344
Summary 347
Problems-solving summary 348
Visual problems 349
Questions and problems 349
8 chemical bonding and atmospheric molecules 355
A look ahead take a deep breath 356
8.1 ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds 357
8.2 an introduction to lewis theory 358
Lewis structures for molecules with single bonds 358
Lewis structures of molecules with multiple bonds 363
Lewis structures of ionic compounds 366
8.3 unequal sharing, electronegativity, and other periodic properties 367
Electronegativity 367
Bond polarity 371
8.4 resonance 374
8.5 formal charges: choosing among lewis structures 377
8.6 exceptions to the octet rule 381
Molecules with less than an octet 381
Molecules with more than an octet 382
Odd-electron molecules 385
8.7 the length and strength of bonds 388
Bond length 388
Bond energies 389
Descriptive chemistry: fluorine and oxygen: location, location, location 392
Summary 394
Problem-solving summary 394
Visual problems 395
Questions and problems 397
9 molecular geometry and bonding theories 405
A look ahead aromas, pharmaceuticals, and the greenhouse effect 406
9.1 molecular shape 406
9.2 valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory 408
Central atoms with no lone pairs 408
Central atoms with lone pairs and bonding pairs of electrons 413
9.3 polar bonds and polar molecules 420
9.4 valence bond theory 424
Orbital overlap and hybridization 425
Tetrahedral geometry: sp3 hybrid orbitals 427
Linear geometry: sp hybrid orbitals 430
Octahedral and trigonal bipyramidal geometry: sp3d2 and sp3d hybrid orbitals
432
9.5 shapes and bonding in larger molecules 435
9.6 molecular orbital (mo) theory 438
Molecular orbitals of h2 439
Molecular orbitals of homonuclear diatomic molecules 441
Molecular orbitals for n2+ and spectra of auroras 448
9.7 a bonding retrospective 449
Descriptive chemistry: from alcohol to asparagus: the nose knows 450
Summary 452
Problem-solving summary 453
Visual problems 453
Questions and problems 454
10 forces between ions and molecules and colligative properties 461
A look ahead a breath of fresh air 462
10.1 sea spray and salts 463
Ion-ion interactions and lattice energy 464
Calculating lattice energies with a born-haber cycle 468
10.2 attractive forces between polar molecules 472
Ion-dipole interactions 472
Dipole-dipole interactions 473
10.3 dispersion forces 476
10.4 real gases revisited 480
10.5 polarity and solubility 481
Calculating the solubility of gases in water: henry's law 482
Combinations of attractive forces 484
10.6 vapor pressure 485
Seawater versus pure water 486
Vapor pressures of solutions: raoult's law 488
10.7 phase diagrams: intermolecular forces at work 490
Physical states and phase transformations 490
Reading a phase diagram 491
10.8 the remarkable behavior of water and properties of liquids 492
Surface tension and viscosity 493
Water and aquatic life 495
10.9 colligative properties of solutions 496
Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression 496
The van't hoff factor 500
Osmosis and osmotic pressure 504
Reverse osmosis 507
10.10 measuring the molar mass of a solute using colligative properties 509
Descriptive chemistry: the salt of the earth 512
Summary 514
Problem-solving summary 514
Visual problems 516
Questions and problems 517
11 the chemistry of solids 523
A look ahead stronger, tougher, harder 524
11.1 metallic bonds and conducting bands 525
11.2 semimetals and semiconductors 527
11.3 metallic crystals 528
Stacking patterns 528
Packing structures and unit cells 529
Unit cell dimensions 531
11.4 alloys 535
Substitutional alloys 535
Interstitial alloys 536
11.5 aluminum and its alloys: light weight and high performance 540
11.6 the structures of some nonmetals 542
11.7 salt crystals: ionic solids 544
11.8 ceramics: insulators to superconductors 547
Polymorphs of silica 547
Ionic silicates 548
From clay to ceramic 550
Structure and bonding: superconductors 551
11.9 x-ray diffraction: how we know crystal structure 553
Descriptive chemistry: silicon, silica, silicates, silicone: what's in a name? 556
Summary 558
Problem-solving summary 558
Visual problems 559
Questions and problems 561
12 organic chemistry: fuels and materials xxx
A look ahead the stuff of daily life xxx
12.1 carbon: the scope of organic chemistry xxx
Families based on functional groups xxx
Small molecules, oligomers, and polymers xxx
Small molecules versus polymers: physical properties xxx
12.2 hydrocarbons xxx
Alkanes: physical properties and structure xxx
Drawing organic molecules xxx
Structural isomers xxx
Naming alkanes xxx
Cycloalkanes xxx
12.3 sources of alkanes xxx
Volatility and the clausius-clapeyron equation xxx
Volatility at work: fractionating crude oil xxx
Cuts of crude oil xxx
12.4 alkenes and alkynes xxx
Chemical reactivities of alkenes and alkynes xxx
Isomers xxx
Polymers of alkenes xxx
12.5 aromatic compounds xxx
Structural isomers of aromatic compounds xxx
Polymers containing aromatic rings xxx
12.6 alcohols, ethers, and reformulated gasoline xxx
Alcohols: methanol and ethanol xxx
Ethers: diethyl ether xxx
Polymers of alcohols and ethers xxx
12.7 more oxygen-containing functional groups: aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic
Acids, esters, amides xxx
Aldehydes and ketones xxx
Carboxylic acids, esters, and amides xxx
Polyesters and polyamides xxx
12.8 hydrocarbon fuels from biomass xxx
Methane from plants xxx
Amines xxx
A final note xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
13 thermodynamics: spontaneous processes, entropy, and free energy xxx
A look ahead the game of energy xxx
13.1 spontaneous processes and entropy xxx
Entropy and microstates: flat tires xxx
Statistical entropy: a mathematical view of microstates xxx
13.2 thermodynamic entropy xxx
Isothermal and nonisothermal processes xxx
A closer look at reversible processes xxx
Entropy changes for other common processes xxx
13.3 absolute entropy, the third law of thermodynamics, and structure xxx
13.4 calculating entropy changes in chemical reactions xxx
13.5 free energy and free-energy changes xxx
Determining the entropy change in the universe xxx
The meaning of free energy xxx
Calculating free-energy changes xxx
Temperature, spontaneity, and free energy xxx
13.6 driving the human engine: coupled reactions xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
14 chemical kinetics xxx
A look ahead how quickly can we clean the air? Xxx
14.1 cars, trucks, and air quality xxx
14.2 reaction rates xxx
Rate units and relative reaction rates xxx
Experimentally determined rates: actual values xxx
Average reaction rates and the formation of no xxx
Instantaneous reaction rates and the formation of no2 xxx
14.3 effect of concentration on reaction rate xxx
Reaction order, rate constants, units, and initial rates xxx
Deriving a rate law from a single experiment xxx
Reaction half-lives xxx
Second-order reactions xxx
Pseudo-first-order reactions xxx
Zero-order reactions xxx
14.4 reaction rates, temperature, and the arrhenius equation xxx
14.5 reaction mechanisms xxx
Elementary steps xxx
Rate laws and reaction mechanisms xxx
Mechanisms and zero-order reactions xxx
14.6 catalysts xxx
Catalysts and the ozone layer xxx
Catalysts and catalytic converters xxx
Descriptive chemistry: the platinum group: catalysts, jewelry, and investment xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
15 chemical equilibrium xxx
A look ahead the eyes have it xxx
15.1 understanding equilibrium: a qualitative view xxx
15.2 the equilibrium constant expression and k xxx
Writing the equilibrium constant expression xxx
Calculating values of kc and kp xxx
Relationships of kc to kp xxx
15.3 manipulating equilibrium constant expressions xxx
K for reverse reactions xxx
K for equations multiplied by a number xxx
K for combined equations xxx
15.4 equilibrium constants and reaction quotients xxx
15.5 equilibrium and thermodynamics xxx
15.6 heterogeneous equilibria xxx
15.7 le chatelier's principle xxx
Effects of adding or removing reactants or products xxx
Effect of changes in pressure and volume xxx
Effect of temperature xxx
Catalysts and equilibrium xxx
15.8 calculations based on k xxx
15.9 changing k with changing temperature xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
16 equilibrium in the aqueous phase xxx
A look ahead a balancing act xxx
16.1 acids and bases xxx
16.2 the bronsted-lowry model xxx
Strong and weak acids xxx
Conjugate acid-base pairs xxx
Strong and weak bases xxx
Relative strengths of acids and bases xxx
16.3 ph and the autoionization of water xxx
The ph scale xxx
Poh xxx
16.4 calculations with ph and k xxx
Weak acids xxx
Weak bases xxx
16.5 polyprotic acids xxx
16.6 acid strength and molecular structure xxx
16.7 ph of salt solutions xxx
16.8 the common-ion effect
16.9 buffers xxx
An environmental buffer xxx
A physiological buffer xxx
Range and capacity xxx
16.10 acid-base titrations and indicators xxx
Acid-base titrations xxx
Alkalinity titrations xxx
Descriptive chemistry: the chemistry of two strong acids: sulfuric and nitric acids
Xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
17 the colorful chemistry of transition metals xxx
A look ahead the company they keep xxx
17.1 lewis acids and bases xxx
17.2 complex ions xxx
17.3 complex-ion equilibria xxx
17.4 hydrated metal ions as acids xxx
17.5 solubilities of compounds and ksp xxx
17.6 polydentate ligands xxx
17.7 ligand strength and the chelation effect xxx
17.8 crystal field theory xxx
17.9 magnetism and spin states xxx
17.10 naming complex ions and coordination compounds xxx
17.11 isomerism in coordination compounds xxx
Geometric isomers xxx
Enantiomers xxx
17.12 metal complexes in biomolecules xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
18 electrochemistry and electric cars xxx
A look ahead 100 mpg: charging up hybrid cars xxx
18.1 redox chemistry revisited xxx
18.2 electrochemical cells xxx
18.3 chemical energy and electrical work xxx
18.4 standard potentials (e?) Xxx
18.5 a reference point: the standard hydrogen electrode xxx
18.6 the effect of concentration on ecell xxx
The nernst equation xxx
Equilibrium and dead batteries xxx
18.7 quantities of reactants and battery life xxx
Nickel-metal hydride batteries xxx
Lithium-ion batteries xxx
18.8 electrolytic cells and rechargeable batteriess xxx
18.9 fuel cells xxx
Descriptive chemistry: the chemistry of the group 12 elements xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
19 biochemistry: the compounds of life xxx
A look ahead the long and the short of it xxx
19.1 molecules and structure: building blocks of life xxx
Individual molecules: small molecule subunits xxx
Formation of polymers and organized assemblies xxx
19.2 a feature of molecules in nature: chirality xxx
19.3 protein composition xxx
19.4 protein structure and function xxx
Primary structure xxx
Secondary structure xxx
Tertiary and quaternary structure xxx
Proteins as catalysts: enzymes xxx
19.5 carbohydrates xxx
Molecular structures of glucose and fructose xxx
Disaccharides and polysaccharides xxx
Photosynthesis and biomass xxx
19.6 lipids xxx
Function and metabolism of lipids xxx
Other types of lipids xxx
19.7 nucleotides and nucleic acids xxx
Components and structure xxx
From dna to protein xxx
An additional role for ribonucleotide monomers: energy and metabolism
Xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
20 nuclear chemistry xxx
A look ahead alchemy in the 21st century xxx
20.1 nuclear chemistry xxx
20.2 radioactive decay xxx
20.3 hydrogen fusion xxx
20.4 nuclear binding energies xxx
20.5 synthesis of heavy elements xxx
20.6 the belt of stability xxx
20.7 artificial nuclides xxx
20.8 nuclear fission xxx
20.9 measuring radioactivity xxx
20.10 biological effects of radioactivity xxx
Radiation dosage xxx
Assessing the risks of radiation xxx
20.11 medical applications of radioactivity xxx
Radiation therapy xxx
Medical imaging xxx
20.12 radiochemical dating xxx
Descriptive chemistry: too hot to handle: radon, radium, and uranium xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
21 life and the periodic table xxx
A look ahead what elements do we find in our bodies? Xxx
21.1 the periodic table of life xxx
21.2 bulk main group elements xxx
Alkali metals xxx
Alkaline earth metals xxx
Chlorine xxx
21.3 trace and ultratrace elements xxx
Main group elements xxx
Transition elements xxx
21.4 diagnosis and therapy xxx
Diagnosis of disease xxx
Therapeutic applications xxx
Medical devices and materials xxx
21.5 toxic metals xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
9780393926491
Chemistry.
540 / G4641
Revised ed. of: Chemistry. The science in context / Thomas R. Gilbert, Rein V. Kirss, Geoffrey Davies. c2004. Includes index.
Contents
1 matter, energy, and the origins of the universe 1
A look ahead blinded by the sun 2
1.1 chemistry and the classes of matter 3
1.2 matter: an atomic view 6
1.3 mixtures and how to separate them 8
1.4 properties of matter 10
1.5 a method for answering questions and solving problems 11
1.6 states of matter 13
1.7 the scientific method: starting off with a bang 16
1.8 making measurements and expressing the results 18
Si units 18
Significant figures 20
Significant figures in calculations 21
Precision and accuracy 26
1.9 unit conversions and dimensional analysis 27
1.10 testing a hypothesis: the big bang revisited 30
Temperature scales 30
An echo of the big bang 33
Summary 35
Problem-solving summary 35
Visual problems 36
Questions and problems 37
2 atoms, ions, and compounds 41
A look ahead when artillery shells bounced off tissue paper 42
2.1 elements of the solar system 42
2.2 compounds and earth's early atmosphere 44
2.3 the rutherford model of atomic structure 46
Electrons 46
Radioactivity and the nuclear atom 48
Protons and neutrons 49
2.4 isotopes 50
2.5 average atomic masses 52
2.6 the periodic table of the elements 54
Mendeleev's periodic table 54
Navigating the modern periodic table 55
2.7 trends in compound formation 58
2.8 naming compounds and writing their formulas 60
Binary molecular compounds 60
Binary ionic compounds 61
Binary compounds of transition metals 63
Polyatomic ions 64
Acids 66
2.9 nucleosynthesis 67
Early nucleosynthesis 67
Stellar nucleosynthesis 69
Summary 72
Problem-solving summary 72
Visual problems 73
Questions and problems 74
3 chemical reactions and earth's composition 80
A look ahead purple salt and bottled water 81
3.1 composition of earth 81
3.2 the mole 82
Molar mass 83
Molecular masses and formula masses 85
Moles and chemical equations 87
3.3 writing balanced chemical equations 88
3.4 combustion reactions 91
3.5 stoichiometric calculations and the carbon cycle 94
3.6 determining empirical formulas from percent composition 97
3.7 empirical and molecular formulas compared 103
Mass spectrometry and molecular mass 105
Using percent composition and mass spectra to determine molecular formulas
107
3.8 combustion analysis 109
3.9 limiting reactants and percent yield 112
Calculations involving limiting reactants 113
Actual yields versus theoretical yields 115
Descriptive chemistry: hydrogen and helium: the bulk of the universe 116
Summary 119
Problem-solving summary 120
Visual problems 121
Questions and problems 121
4 solution chemistry and the hydrosphere 129
A look ahead the constant ocean 130
4.1 earth: the water planet 130
4.2 solution concentration and molarity 134
4.3 dilutions 140
4.4 electrolytes and nonelectrolytes 143
4.5 acid-base reactions 145
4.6 precipitation reactions 148
Making insoluble salts 149
Using precipitation in analysis 151
Saturated solutions and supersaturation 153
4.7 ion exchange 154
4.8 oxidation-reduction reactions 157
Oxidation numbers 157
Examples of redox reactions 159
Balancing redox reactions using half-reactions 161
Redox in nature 164
4.9 titrations 167
Descriptive chemistry: calcium: in the limelight 170
Summary 172
Problem-solving summary 172
Visual problems 173
Questions and problems 174
5 thermochemistry 183
A look ahead the sunlight unwinding 184
5.1 energy: basic concepts and definitions 184
Heat transfer and temperature 185
Work, potential energy, and kinetic energy 185
Kinetic energy and potential energy at the molecular level 188
5.2 systems, surroundings, and the flow of energy 191
Isolated, closed, and open systems 191
Heat flow 192
Units of energy 197
5.3 enthalpy and enthalpy changes 200
5.4 heating curves and heat capacity 201
Hot soup on a cold day 201
Cold drinks on a hot day 206
5.5 calorimetry: measuring heat capacity and calorimeter constants 209
Determining heat capacity and specific heat 209
Calorimeter constants 211
5.6 enthalpies of formation and enthalpies of reaction 213
5.7 fuel values and food values 218
Fuel value 218
Food value 219
5.8 hess's law 221
Descriptive chemistry: carbon: diamonds, graphite, and the molecules of life 226
Summary 228
Problem-solving summary 228
Visual problems 229
Questions and problems 231
6 properties of gases: the air we breathe 237
A look ahead an invisible necessity 238
6.1 the gas phase 238
6.2 atmospheric pressure 240
6.3 the gas laws 246
Boyle's law: relating pressure and volume 246
Charles's law: relating volume and temperature 249
Avogadro's law: relating volume and moles of gas 252
Amontons's law: relating pressure and temperature 252
6.4 the ideal gas law 255
6.5 gas density 260
6.6 dalton's law and mixtures of gases 265
6.7 the kinetic molecular theory of gases and graham's law 270
Explaining boyle's, dalton's, and avogadro's laws 271
Explaining charles's and amontons's laws 272
Molecular speeds and kinetic energy 273
Graham's law: effusion and diffusion 276
6.8 real gases 278
Deviations from ideality 278
The van der waals equation for real gases 280
Descriptive chemistry: nitrogen: feeding plants and inflating air bags 282
Summary 284
Problem-solving summary 284
Visual problems 285
Questions and problems 288
7 electrons in atoms and periodic properties 297
A look ahead can nature be as absurd as it seems? 298
7.1 waves of light 299
Properties of waves 299
The behavior of waves 301
Colors missing from sunlight 302
The expanding universe 303
7.2 atomic spectra 304
7.3 particles of light and quantum theory 306
Quantum theory 306
The photoelectric effect 307
7.4 the hydrogen spectrum and the bohr model 310
Lines in the hydrogen spectrum 310
The bohr model of hydrogen 311
Energies of photons and electron transitions 313
7.5 electrons as waves 315
De broglie wavelengths 315
The heisenberg uncertainty principle 318
7.6 quantum numbers and electron spin 320
7.7 the size and shape of atomic orbitals 325
S orbitals 325
P and d orbitals 327
7.8 the periodic table and filling in the orbitals of multielectron atoms 328
7.9 electron configurations of ions 333
Ions of main group elements 333
Transition metal ions 335
7.10 the sizes of atoms and ions 337
Orbital penetration and effective nuclear charge 338
Trends in atom and ion sizes 338
7.11 ionization energies 340
Descriptive chemistry: a noble family: special status for special behavior 344
Summary 347
Problems-solving summary 348
Visual problems 349
Questions and problems 349
8 chemical bonding and atmospheric molecules 355
A look ahead take a deep breath 356
8.1 ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds 357
8.2 an introduction to lewis theory 358
Lewis structures for molecules with single bonds 358
Lewis structures of molecules with multiple bonds 363
Lewis structures of ionic compounds 366
8.3 unequal sharing, electronegativity, and other periodic properties 367
Electronegativity 367
Bond polarity 371
8.4 resonance 374
8.5 formal charges: choosing among lewis structures 377
8.6 exceptions to the octet rule 381
Molecules with less than an octet 381
Molecules with more than an octet 382
Odd-electron molecules 385
8.7 the length and strength of bonds 388
Bond length 388
Bond energies 389
Descriptive chemistry: fluorine and oxygen: location, location, location 392
Summary 394
Problem-solving summary 394
Visual problems 395
Questions and problems 397
9 molecular geometry and bonding theories 405
A look ahead aromas, pharmaceuticals, and the greenhouse effect 406
9.1 molecular shape 406
9.2 valence-shell electron-pair repulsion theory 408
Central atoms with no lone pairs 408
Central atoms with lone pairs and bonding pairs of electrons 413
9.3 polar bonds and polar molecules 420
9.4 valence bond theory 424
Orbital overlap and hybridization 425
Tetrahedral geometry: sp3 hybrid orbitals 427
Linear geometry: sp hybrid orbitals 430
Octahedral and trigonal bipyramidal geometry: sp3d2 and sp3d hybrid orbitals
432
9.5 shapes and bonding in larger molecules 435
9.6 molecular orbital (mo) theory 438
Molecular orbitals of h2 439
Molecular orbitals of homonuclear diatomic molecules 441
Molecular orbitals for n2+ and spectra of auroras 448
9.7 a bonding retrospective 449
Descriptive chemistry: from alcohol to asparagus: the nose knows 450
Summary 452
Problem-solving summary 453
Visual problems 453
Questions and problems 454
10 forces between ions and molecules and colligative properties 461
A look ahead a breath of fresh air 462
10.1 sea spray and salts 463
Ion-ion interactions and lattice energy 464
Calculating lattice energies with a born-haber cycle 468
10.2 attractive forces between polar molecules 472
Ion-dipole interactions 472
Dipole-dipole interactions 473
10.3 dispersion forces 476
10.4 real gases revisited 480
10.5 polarity and solubility 481
Calculating the solubility of gases in water: henry's law 482
Combinations of attractive forces 484
10.6 vapor pressure 485
Seawater versus pure water 486
Vapor pressures of solutions: raoult's law 488
10.7 phase diagrams: intermolecular forces at work 490
Physical states and phase transformations 490
Reading a phase diagram 491
10.8 the remarkable behavior of water and properties of liquids 492
Surface tension and viscosity 493
Water and aquatic life 495
10.9 colligative properties of solutions 496
Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression 496
The van't hoff factor 500
Osmosis and osmotic pressure 504
Reverse osmosis 507
10.10 measuring the molar mass of a solute using colligative properties 509
Descriptive chemistry: the salt of the earth 512
Summary 514
Problem-solving summary 514
Visual problems 516
Questions and problems 517
11 the chemistry of solids 523
A look ahead stronger, tougher, harder 524
11.1 metallic bonds and conducting bands 525
11.2 semimetals and semiconductors 527
11.3 metallic crystals 528
Stacking patterns 528
Packing structures and unit cells 529
Unit cell dimensions 531
11.4 alloys 535
Substitutional alloys 535
Interstitial alloys 536
11.5 aluminum and its alloys: light weight and high performance 540
11.6 the structures of some nonmetals 542
11.7 salt crystals: ionic solids 544
11.8 ceramics: insulators to superconductors 547
Polymorphs of silica 547
Ionic silicates 548
From clay to ceramic 550
Structure and bonding: superconductors 551
11.9 x-ray diffraction: how we know crystal structure 553
Descriptive chemistry: silicon, silica, silicates, silicone: what's in a name? 556
Summary 558
Problem-solving summary 558
Visual problems 559
Questions and problems 561
12 organic chemistry: fuels and materials xxx
A look ahead the stuff of daily life xxx
12.1 carbon: the scope of organic chemistry xxx
Families based on functional groups xxx
Small molecules, oligomers, and polymers xxx
Small molecules versus polymers: physical properties xxx
12.2 hydrocarbons xxx
Alkanes: physical properties and structure xxx
Drawing organic molecules xxx
Structural isomers xxx
Naming alkanes xxx
Cycloalkanes xxx
12.3 sources of alkanes xxx
Volatility and the clausius-clapeyron equation xxx
Volatility at work: fractionating crude oil xxx
Cuts of crude oil xxx
12.4 alkenes and alkynes xxx
Chemical reactivities of alkenes and alkynes xxx
Isomers xxx
Polymers of alkenes xxx
12.5 aromatic compounds xxx
Structural isomers of aromatic compounds xxx
Polymers containing aromatic rings xxx
12.6 alcohols, ethers, and reformulated gasoline xxx
Alcohols: methanol and ethanol xxx
Ethers: diethyl ether xxx
Polymers of alcohols and ethers xxx
12.7 more oxygen-containing functional groups: aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic
Acids, esters, amides xxx
Aldehydes and ketones xxx
Carboxylic acids, esters, and amides xxx
Polyesters and polyamides xxx
12.8 hydrocarbon fuels from biomass xxx
Methane from plants xxx
Amines xxx
A final note xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
13 thermodynamics: spontaneous processes, entropy, and free energy xxx
A look ahead the game of energy xxx
13.1 spontaneous processes and entropy xxx
Entropy and microstates: flat tires xxx
Statistical entropy: a mathematical view of microstates xxx
13.2 thermodynamic entropy xxx
Isothermal and nonisothermal processes xxx
A closer look at reversible processes xxx
Entropy changes for other common processes xxx
13.3 absolute entropy, the third law of thermodynamics, and structure xxx
13.4 calculating entropy changes in chemical reactions xxx
13.5 free energy and free-energy changes xxx
Determining the entropy change in the universe xxx
The meaning of free energy xxx
Calculating free-energy changes xxx
Temperature, spontaneity, and free energy xxx
13.6 driving the human engine: coupled reactions xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
14 chemical kinetics xxx
A look ahead how quickly can we clean the air? Xxx
14.1 cars, trucks, and air quality xxx
14.2 reaction rates xxx
Rate units and relative reaction rates xxx
Experimentally determined rates: actual values xxx
Average reaction rates and the formation of no xxx
Instantaneous reaction rates and the formation of no2 xxx
14.3 effect of concentration on reaction rate xxx
Reaction order, rate constants, units, and initial rates xxx
Deriving a rate law from a single experiment xxx
Reaction half-lives xxx
Second-order reactions xxx
Pseudo-first-order reactions xxx
Zero-order reactions xxx
14.4 reaction rates, temperature, and the arrhenius equation xxx
14.5 reaction mechanisms xxx
Elementary steps xxx
Rate laws and reaction mechanisms xxx
Mechanisms and zero-order reactions xxx
14.6 catalysts xxx
Catalysts and the ozone layer xxx
Catalysts and catalytic converters xxx
Descriptive chemistry: the platinum group: catalysts, jewelry, and investment xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
15 chemical equilibrium xxx
A look ahead the eyes have it xxx
15.1 understanding equilibrium: a qualitative view xxx
15.2 the equilibrium constant expression and k xxx
Writing the equilibrium constant expression xxx
Calculating values of kc and kp xxx
Relationships of kc to kp xxx
15.3 manipulating equilibrium constant expressions xxx
K for reverse reactions xxx
K for equations multiplied by a number xxx
K for combined equations xxx
15.4 equilibrium constants and reaction quotients xxx
15.5 equilibrium and thermodynamics xxx
15.6 heterogeneous equilibria xxx
15.7 le chatelier's principle xxx
Effects of adding or removing reactants or products xxx
Effect of changes in pressure and volume xxx
Effect of temperature xxx
Catalysts and equilibrium xxx
15.8 calculations based on k xxx
15.9 changing k with changing temperature xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
16 equilibrium in the aqueous phase xxx
A look ahead a balancing act xxx
16.1 acids and bases xxx
16.2 the bronsted-lowry model xxx
Strong and weak acids xxx
Conjugate acid-base pairs xxx
Strong and weak bases xxx
Relative strengths of acids and bases xxx
16.3 ph and the autoionization of water xxx
The ph scale xxx
Poh xxx
16.4 calculations with ph and k xxx
Weak acids xxx
Weak bases xxx
16.5 polyprotic acids xxx
16.6 acid strength and molecular structure xxx
16.7 ph of salt solutions xxx
16.8 the common-ion effect
16.9 buffers xxx
An environmental buffer xxx
A physiological buffer xxx
Range and capacity xxx
16.10 acid-base titrations and indicators xxx
Acid-base titrations xxx
Alkalinity titrations xxx
Descriptive chemistry: the chemistry of two strong acids: sulfuric and nitric acids
Xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
17 the colorful chemistry of transition metals xxx
A look ahead the company they keep xxx
17.1 lewis acids and bases xxx
17.2 complex ions xxx
17.3 complex-ion equilibria xxx
17.4 hydrated metal ions as acids xxx
17.5 solubilities of compounds and ksp xxx
17.6 polydentate ligands xxx
17.7 ligand strength and the chelation effect xxx
17.8 crystal field theory xxx
17.9 magnetism and spin states xxx
17.10 naming complex ions and coordination compounds xxx
17.11 isomerism in coordination compounds xxx
Geometric isomers xxx
Enantiomers xxx
17.12 metal complexes in biomolecules xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
18 electrochemistry and electric cars xxx
A look ahead 100 mpg: charging up hybrid cars xxx
18.1 redox chemistry revisited xxx
18.2 electrochemical cells xxx
18.3 chemical energy and electrical work xxx
18.4 standard potentials (e?) Xxx
18.5 a reference point: the standard hydrogen electrode xxx
18.6 the effect of concentration on ecell xxx
The nernst equation xxx
Equilibrium and dead batteries xxx
18.7 quantities of reactants and battery life xxx
Nickel-metal hydride batteries xxx
Lithium-ion batteries xxx
18.8 electrolytic cells and rechargeable batteriess xxx
18.9 fuel cells xxx
Descriptive chemistry: the chemistry of the group 12 elements xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
19 biochemistry: the compounds of life xxx
A look ahead the long and the short of it xxx
19.1 molecules and structure: building blocks of life xxx
Individual molecules: small molecule subunits xxx
Formation of polymers and organized assemblies xxx
19.2 a feature of molecules in nature: chirality xxx
19.3 protein composition xxx
19.4 protein structure and function xxx
Primary structure xxx
Secondary structure xxx
Tertiary and quaternary structure xxx
Proteins as catalysts: enzymes xxx
19.5 carbohydrates xxx
Molecular structures of glucose and fructose xxx
Disaccharides and polysaccharides xxx
Photosynthesis and biomass xxx
19.6 lipids xxx
Function and metabolism of lipids xxx
Other types of lipids xxx
19.7 nucleotides and nucleic acids xxx
Components and structure xxx
From dna to protein xxx
An additional role for ribonucleotide monomers: energy and metabolism
Xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
20 nuclear chemistry xxx
A look ahead alchemy in the 21st century xxx
20.1 nuclear chemistry xxx
20.2 radioactive decay xxx
20.3 hydrogen fusion xxx
20.4 nuclear binding energies xxx
20.5 synthesis of heavy elements xxx
20.6 the belt of stability xxx
20.7 artificial nuclides xxx
20.8 nuclear fission xxx
20.9 measuring radioactivity xxx
20.10 biological effects of radioactivity xxx
Radiation dosage xxx
Assessing the risks of radiation xxx
20.11 medical applications of radioactivity xxx
Radiation therapy xxx
Medical imaging xxx
20.12 radiochemical dating xxx
Descriptive chemistry: too hot to handle: radon, radium, and uranium xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
21 life and the periodic table xxx
A look ahead what elements do we find in our bodies? Xxx
21.1 the periodic table of life xxx
21.2 bulk main group elements xxx
Alkali metals xxx
Alkaline earth metals xxx
Chlorine xxx
21.3 trace and ultratrace elements xxx
Main group elements xxx
Transition elements xxx
21.4 diagnosis and therapy xxx
Diagnosis of disease xxx
Therapeutic applications xxx
Medical devices and materials xxx
21.5 toxic metals xxx
Summary xxx
Problem-solving summary xxx
Visual problems xxx
Questions and problems xxx
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Chemistry.
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