TY - BOOK AU - Pedigo,Larry P. AU - Rice,Marlin E. TI - Entomology and pest management / SN - 9780135132951 U1 - 632/.7 22 PY - 2009/// CY - Upper Saddle River, N.J. PB - Pearson Prentice Hall KW - Insect pests KW - Control KW - Insects KW - Entomology N1 - Includes bibliographical references and index; Brief contents 1 introduction 1 2 insect structures and life processes 35 3 insect classification 79 4 the insect life cycle 143 5 insect ecology 173 6 surveillance and sampling 209 7 economic decision levels for pest populations 253 8 pest management theory 285 9 management with natural enemies and other biological agents 309 10 ecological management of the crop environment 339 11 conventional insecticides for management 371 12 managing insects with resistant plants 435 13 management by modifying insect development and behavior 473 14 sterile-insect technique and other pest genetic tactics 503 15 the practice of insect pest management 529 16 managing ecological backlash 557 17 insect pest management case histories 589 Appendix 1: key to the orders of insecta 613 Appendix 2: list of some insects and related species alphabetized by common name 619 Appendix 3: world wide web sites of entomological resources 655 Glossary 711 Index 735 Contents 1 introduction 1 Insect abundance 1 Insect diversity 1 What an insect is 2 Other arthropods 3 Class crustacea 3 Class diplopoda 4 Class chilopoda 4 Class arachnida 5 What entomology is 8 Entomologists 10 Producers of entomological information and services 10 Users of entomological information and services 11 Relationships between insects and people 13 Brief history of relationships 13 Insects in antiquity 13 Success of insects 14 Prehistoric times 15 The rise of agriculture and civilization 16 Modern times 17 The ledger 18 Black ink: the benefits 18 Red ink: the losses 23 The balance sheet 27 Insect pest management 29 The concept of pest 30 The concept of pest status 32 2 insect structures and life processes 35 The insect body 35 General organization 35 Tagmosis and the body wall 35 Detail of the body wall 36 The head 38 Cranium 38 Mouthparts 39 Antennae 44 Eyes 46 The thorax 46 Legs 47 Wings 48 The abdomen 49 Maintenance and locomotion 50 Feeding and digestion 50 Feeding 50 The digestive system 51 Digestion 55 Nutrition 56 Excretion 56 The excretory system 57 Excretion 57 Other excretory modes 58 Circulation of blood 58 The circulatory system 58 Blood 59 Circulation 59 Respiration 59 The tracheal system 59 Respiratory process 62 Musculature and locomotion 62 Muscle system 62 Muscle function 64 Locomotion 65 Sensing the environment and integrating activities 67 Sense organs 68 Photoreceptors 68 Chemoreceptors 68 Mechanoreceptors 69 Other receptors 71 Nervous system 72 Central nervous system 72 Visceral nervous system 74 Nerve-impulse transmission and integration 74 Nerve-impulse transmission 74 Integration 76 Insect reproduction 76 The female system 76 The male system 77 3 insect classification 79 Objectives of classification 79 Elements of classification 81 General classification of insects 82 Subclass apterygota 83 Subclass pterygota 90 Suborder anisoptera-dragonflies 91 Suborder zygoptera-damselflies 92 Family acrididae-grasshoppers or locusts 92 Family tettigoniidae-longhorn grasshoppers and katydids 93 Family gryllidae-crickets 93 Family phasmatidae-walkingsticks 94 Family mantidae-mantids 94 Superfamily blattoidea-cockroaches 94 Family kalotermitidae-drywood termites 98 Family rhinotermitidae-subterranean termites 98 Family pediculidae-head and body lice 102 Family pthiridae-crab lice 104 Sucking lice of domestic animals 104 Family pentatomidae-stink bugs 106 Family coreidae-leaffooted bugs 107 Family lygaeidae-seed bugs 107 Family nabidae-damsel bugs 107 Family anthocoridae-pirate bugs 107 Family miridae-plant bugs 107 Family cicadidae-cicadas 108 Family cicadellidae-leafhoppers 108 Superfamily fulgoroidea, many families including fulgoridae-planthoppers 108 Family psyllidae-jumping plantlice 110 Family aleyrodidae-whiteflies 110 Family aphididae-aphids 110 Superfamily coccoidea-scale insects 110 Family carabidae-ground beetles 113 Family staphylinidae-rove beetles 113 Family scarabaeidae-scarab beetles 113 Family buprestidae-metallic wood borers 113 Family elateridae-click beetles 115 Family dermestidae-dermestids 116 Family coccinellidae-lady beetles 116 Family meloidae-blister beetles 117 Family cerambycidae-longhorned beetles 118 Family chrysomelidae-leaf beetles 118 Family curculionidae-weevils 118 Family scolytidae-bark beetles 118 Family tineidae-clothes moths and others 123 Family psychidae-bagworm moths 123 Family tortricidae-tortricid moths 123 Family pyralidae-snout and grass moths 124 Family papilionidae-swallowtail butterflies 124 Family nymphalidae-brushfooted butterflies 124 Family lasiocampidae-tent caterpillars and lappet moths 124 Family sphingidae-sphinx moths 125 Family noctuidae-noctuid moths 126 Family culicidae-mosquitoes 129 Family cecidomyiidae-gall midges 130 Family tabanidae-horse flies and deer flies 130 Family syrphidae-flower flies 130 Family tephritidae-fruit flies 130 Family muscidae-muscid flies 130 Family tachinidae-tachinid flies 131 Family tenthredinidae-tenthredinid sawflies 133 Family cephidae-stem sawflies 133 Family braconidae-braconids 133 Family ichneumonidae-ichneumons 135 Family trichogrammatidae-minute egg parasites 135 Family formicidae-ants 135 Family vespidae-vespid wasps 136 Family apidae-bumble bees, honey bees, and others 137 Mite and tick classification 138 Suborder mesostigmata 139 Suborder ixodida 139 Suborder prostigmata 140 Suborder astigmata 140 4 the insect life cycle 143 Reproduction and embryonic development 143 Types of reproduction 143 Fertilization 146 Development of the embryo 146 Postembryonic growth and development 149 Egg hatching 149 Growth of lmmatures 150 Metamorphosis 154 Terminology 156 Maturity 156 Emergence of the adult 156 Mating behavior 157 Oviposition 157 General models of the life cycle 159 The no-metamorphosis model-ametabolous development 160 The gradual-metamorphosis model-paurometabolous development 160 The incomplete-metamorphosis model-hemimetabolous development 160 The complete-metamorphosis model-holometabolous development 161 Insect seasonal cycles 164 Univoltine cycles 164 Multivoltine cycles 164 Delayed voltine cycles 168 Seasonal adaptations 169 Dormancy 169 Diapause 170 5 insect ecology 173 The ecological role of insect pests 174 The idea of populations 174 Ecosystems and agroecosystems 176 The ecological role of insect outbreaks 179 Dynamics of insect life systems 181 Determinants of insect abundance 181 Population change 183 Birth rate 184 Death rate 184 Movements 191 Effects of environment on insect development 198 Predicting biological events: the degree-day method 199 Degree-day programs in insect pest management 203 Regulation of insect populations 204 6 surveillance and sampling 209 Sampling units and samples 212 Sampling universe 212 Sampling techniques and sampling programs 213 Common sampling techniques in insect pest management 213 In situ counts 213 Knockdown 217 Netting 220 Trapping 222 Extraction from soil 232 Indirect techniques 234 Auxiliary survey equipment 235 The sampling program 235 Kinds of estimates 235 Absolute estimates 235 Relative estimates 236 Converting relative estimates to absolute estimates 237 Descriptive statistics 237 Criteria of estimates 241 Program dimensions 241 Insect stage 241 Number of sampling units 241 Time to sample 242 Pattern of sampling 242 Pest management scouts and scouting records 243 Alfalfa weevil sampling: an example 244 Sequential sampling 247 7 economic decision levels for pestpopulations 253 Concepts of economic levels 253 Economic damage and the damage boundary 254 Economic-injury level 255 Economic threshold 258 Calculation of economic decision levels 259 Dynamics of economic-injury levels 260 Market value (v) 262 Management costs (c) 263 Degree of injury per insect (i) 263 Stand reducers 264 Leaf-mass consumers 264 Assimilate sappers 264 Turgor reducers 265 Fruit feeders 265 Architecture modifiers 266 Injury measurements in eil calculations 267 Crop susceptibility to injury (d) 268 Time of injury 268 Plant part injured 268 Injury types 269 Intensity of injury 269 Environmental effects 271 Amount of damage avoided (k) 272 Experimental techniques to determine plant damage response 273 Observation 273 Modification of natural populations 273 Creating artificial populations 273 Injury simulation 276 Environmental eils 276 Assigning realistic management costs (c) 277 Reducing damage per pest (d) 279 Developing an environmentally responsible k value (k) 279 Manipulating other eil variables 279 Using economic levels 280 Implementation categories 280 No thresholds 280 Nominal thresholds 280 Simple thresholds 280 Comprehensive thresholds 281 Limitations of the eil concept 282 Conclusions 283 8 pest management theory 285 Historical highlights of pest technology 286 Pre-insecticide era 286 Insecticide era 288 Emergence of pest management 290 The concept of pest management 292 Definition and characteristics of pest management 292 Pest management strategies and tactics 293 Do-nothing strategy 293 Reduce-numbers strategy 294 Reduce-crop-susceptibility strategy 296 Combined strategies 297 Kinds of pests and likely strategies 297 Subeconomic pests 297 Occasional pests 298 Perennial and severe pests 300 Development of a pest management program 302 Information and techniques 302 Tactics 304 Putting it all together: systems 304 9 management with natural enemies and other biological agents 309 Brief history of biological control 310 The theory behind classical biological control 311 Agents of biological control 313 Parasites and parasitoids 313 Parasitoids 313 Insect parasitic nematodes 315 Nonbeneficial parasites 315 Predators 317 Pathogenic microorganisms 320 Bacteria 320 Viruses 323 Fungi 324 Biotechnology and the future of microbial insecticides 324 The practice of biological control 327 Introduction 327 Augmentation 330 Inundative releases 330 Inoculative releases 330 Environmental manipulations 332 Conservation of natural enemies 333 Conclusions 336 10 ecological management of the crop environment 339 Ecological management 340 Reducing average favorability of the ecosystem 342 Sanitation 342 Crop residue destruction and utilization 342 Elimination of animal wastes 345 Efficient storage and processing 345 Destruction or modification of alternate hosts and habitats 346 Tillage 348 Irrigation and water management 353 Disrupting continuity of pest requisites 356 Reduce continuity in space 356 Crop spacing 356 Crop location 357 Upset chronological continuity 358 Crop rotation 358 Crop fallowing 361 Disrupting crop and insect synchrony 361 Diverting pest populations away from the crop 363 Trap cropping 363 Strip harvesting 364 Intercropping 364 Reducing the impact of insect injury 366 Modify host tolerance 366 Modify harvest schedules 367 Conclusions 369 11 conventional insecticides for management 371 Insecticide names and formulas 372 Insecticide nomenclature 373 Chemical formulas 373 Survey of common insecticides 374 Pyrethroids 375 Third-generation pyrethroids 377 Fourth-generation pyrethroids 377 Carbamates 380 Organophosphates 381 Aliphatic derivatives 382 Phenyl derivatives 384 Heterocyclic derivatives 385 Neonicotinoids 387 Phenylpyrazoles 389 Pyrroles 390 Pyrazoles 390 Pyridazinones 390 Pyridine azomethines 391 Oxadiazines 391 Insect growth regulators 392 Repellents 392 Chlorinated hydrocarbons 392 Ddt and relatives 392 Hch and lindane 394 Cyclodienes 395 Polychloroterpenes 397 Botanicals 397 Pyrethrum 397 Azadiractins 398 Nicotine 398 D-limonene 399 Rotenon 399 Ryania 400 Sabadilla 400 Fumigants 400 Para-dichlorobenzene and naphthalene 401 Inorganic phosphides and phosphine 401 Methyl bromide 401 Chloropicrin 402 Oils 402 Other insecticides 402 Formamidines 402 Dinitrophenols 403 Organosulfurs and organotins 404 Inorganics 404 Insecticidal soaps 405 Chemicals used with insecticides 405 Synergists 405 Solvents 406 Diluents 406 Surfactants 406 Stickers 407 Deodorants 407 Insecticide formulations 407 Liquid formulations 407 Emulsifiable concentrates (ec or e) 407 Solutions (s) 407 Flowables (f or l) 408 Aerosols (a) 408 Liquefied gas (lg or f) 408 Dry formulations 408 Dusts (d) 408 Granules (g) 409 Wettable powders (wp or w) 409 Soluble powders (sp) 409 Dry flowables (df) 409 Water-soluble packets (wsp) 409 Poisonous baits (b) 409 Slow-release formulations (sr) 410 Insecticide toxicity 410 Insecticide modes of action 410 Nerve poisons 411 Muscle poisons 412 Physical toxicants 412 Toxicity to humans 412 Acute poisoning 412 Chronic poisoning 413 Estimation of toxicity to humans 413 Insecticide laws and regulations 417 Federal insecticide, fungicide, and rodenticide act 417 Fifra amended 418 Pesticide label regulations 419 Applicator certification 422 Regulating pesticides 422 Regulation of new pesticides 422 Regulating existing pesticides 424 Food quality protection act 425 Using insecticides for pest management 426 Effective use 426 Choosing an insecticide 426 Choosing a dosage 426 Timing of applications 427 Coverage and confinement of applications 427 Using insecticides safely 431 Conclusions 433 12 managing insects with resistant plants 435 Brief history 436 Insect and host-plant relationships 438 The insect aspect 438 Finding the general habitat 438 Finding the host plant 438 Accepting the plant as a proper host 438 Sufficiency of the plant for requisites 439 The plant aspect 439 Morphological characteristics 440 Physiological characteristics 440 Host-plant selection 440 Mechanisms of resistance 441 Nonpreference 442 Allelochemic nonpreference 442 Morphological nonpreference 442 Use of nonpreference 443 Antibiosis 443 Tolerance 444 Ecological resistance 446 Host evasion 446 Induced resistance 446 Host escape 447 Genetic nature of resistance 447 Epidemiological types of resistance 447 The gene-for-gene relationship 447 Vertical and horizontal types of resistance 448 Resistance classes based on mode of inheritance 449 Oligogenic resistance 450 Polygenic resistance 450 Cytoplasmic resistance 450 Factors mediating the expression of resistance 450 Physical factors 450 Temperature 450 Light intensity 450 Soil fertility 451 Biological factors 451 Biotypes 452 Plant age 452 Traditional development of insect resistant varieties 453 Biotechnology and resistant-variety development 453 Basics of genetic engineering 454 Dna: the blueprint of life 454 Cutting and splicing chromosomes 454 Resistant plants from recombinant dna technology 454 Deployment of engineered resistant plant varieties 459 Insect resistance management 461 Transgenic plants as trap crops 462 Benefits and risks of transgenic crops 462 Successful uses of insect-resistant cultivars 464 Resistance to hessian fly 464 Resistance to european corn borer 465 Resistance to spotted alfalfa aphid 466 Resistance to wheat stem sawfly 466 Resistance to the greenbug 467 Use of plant resistance in insect pest management 468 Plant resistance as the sole or primary tactic 468 Plant resistance integrated with other tactics 469 Conclusions 469 13 management by modifying insect development and behavior 473 Disrupting normal growth and development 474 The basis for igr development 474 Functions of the principal growth hormones 474 Experimental modification of growth hormones 475 Hormone mimics 475 Synthetic hormones 476 Other potential igrs 476 Practical igrs 477 Methoprene 478 Hydroprene 478 Kinoprene 478 Pyriproxyfen 479 Diflubenzuron 479 Lufenuron 479 Buprofezin 481 Hexaflumuron 481 Novaluron 482 Tebufenozide 483 Methoxyfenozide 484 Halofenozide 484 Compatibility of igrs with other tactics 484 Modifying behavior patterns 485 Tactics involving insect attraction 485 Use of pheromones in attraction 485 Pheromones in sampling and detection 487 Pheromones used in attract-and-kill programs 489 Mating disruption by air permeation 490 Use of traditional baits 495 Insect repellents 497 Traditional repellents 497 Plant allomones as repellents 498 Epideictic pheromones as repellents 499 Integration of behavior modification with other tactics 499 Conclusions 500 14 sterile-insect technique and other pest genetic tactics 503 The sterile-insect technique 504 Sit theoretical background 504 Circumstances for application 506 Sterilizing insects in a natural population 507 Methods of sterilization 507 Ionizing radiation 509 Chemosterilization 510 Sterile-insect release programs 511 Screwworm eradication and suppression 511 Tropical fruit fly programs 514 Other insects 515 Requirements and limitations of sterile-insect programs 519 Other genetic tactics 520 Conditional lethal mutations 521 Inherited sterility 522 Hybrid sterility 523 Cytoplasmic incompatibility 524 Chromosomal rearrangements 524 Meiotic drive mechanisms 525 Replacement by innocuous forms 526 Use of molecular genetic techniques 526 Conclusions 526 15 the practice of insect pest management 529 Concepts of integration 529 Basis for integration 530 Preventive practice 531 Lowering the pest's general equilibrium position 531 Raising the level at which economic damage occurs 532 Pesticides not recommended as a preventive tactic 534 Plant and animal quarantine as a preventive tactic 535 Therapeutic practice 537 Use of therapeutics in insect pest management 538 Development of an integrated management program 538 Selection of tactics 539 The management plan and crop values 539 An integrated management program for the bean leaf beetle 540 Areawide pest technology 543 The boll weevil eradication program 544 Pilot project 546 Current program 546 Other areawide programs 548 Site-specific farming and pest management practice 548 Conclusions 552 16 managing ecological backlash 557 Resistance of populations to pest management tactics 557 Principles of resistance 558 Resistance to conventional insecticides 559 Magnitude of the insecticide resistance problem 559 Mechanisms of resistance to insecticides 562 Cross-resistance 564 Dangers and costs of the resistance phenomenon 565 Resistance to other pest management tactics 566 Resistance to insect growth regulators 566 Resistance to microbial insecticides 566 Resistance to parasites 568 Virulence to resistant plants 568 Resistance to crop rotations 569 Resistance to sterile-male releases 570 Resistance to pheromones 570 Management of resistance 570 Conditions that promote resistance 571 Slowing the development of resistance 571 Management by moderation 572 Management by saturation 572 Management by multiple attack 573 Pest population resurgence and replacement 574 Dynamics of resurgence and replacement 574 Upsets from reduction of natural enemies 575 Susceptibility of arthropod natural enemies to insecticides 575 Paradigm for resurgence 576 Examples of resurgence from natural-enemy reduction 576 Paradigm for pest replacement 576 Examples of replacement from natural-enemy reduction 578 Favorable effects of pesticides on arthropod physiology and behavior 579 Upsets from removal of competitors 580 Managing resurgence and replacement 580 Avoiding hormoligosis 580 Avoiding natural-enemy destruction 580 Physiological selectivity 581 Ecological selectivity 581 Inoculative releases of natural enemies 582 Other forms of ecological backlash 584 Enhanced microbial degradation 584 Upsets in community balance 585 Conclusions 585 17 insect pest management case histories 589 Insect pest management in a low-value production system 589 Pest life cycle and biology 589 Injury and interactions with the tree 590 Beetle outbreaks 590 Pest management program for spruce bark beetle 590 Insect pest management in moderate-value production systems 592 Insect pest management in cotton 592 Historical background of cotton-insect control 593 Insect pest management in texas cotton 594 Insect pest management in corn 597 Life history and injury from key pests 598 Historical aspects of pest control 600 Insect pest management program for corn in the northcentral united states 603 Insect pest management in high-value production systems 603 Insect pest management in potatoes 604 Pest biology 604 Early control efforts 605 Insect pest management in the northern united states 605 Insect pest management in apples 606 Key pests and injury 607 Secondary pests and injury 607 Insect pest management in commercial apple orchards 608 Conclusions 611 Appendix 1: key to the orders of insecta 613 Appendix 2: list of some insects and related species alphabetized by common name 619 Appendix 3: world wide web sites of entomological resources 655 Glossary 711 Index 735 List of diagnostic boxes Common name scientific name box page Alfalfa caterpillar colias euytheme boisduval 8.2 298 Alfalfa weevil hypera postica (gyllenhal) 6.5 246 Angoumois grain moth sitotroga cerealella (olivier) 10.4 350 Anopheles mosquitoes anopheles species 14.8 525 Armyworm pseudaletia unipuncta (haworth) 10.1 341 Asian longhorned beetle anoplophora glabripennis (motschulsky) 15.1 536 Bean leaf beetle cerotoma trifurcata (forster) 10.8 364 Black blister beetle epicauta pennsylvanica (degeer) 4.4 167 Black cutworm agrotis ipsilon (hufnagel) 7.1 265 Boll weevil anthonomus grandis grandis (boheman) 10.2 343 Cabbage looper trichoplusia ni (hübner) 14.7 524 Cereal leaf beetle oulema melanopus (linnaeus) 10.5 355 Codling moth cydia pomonella (linnaeus) 15.5 552 Colorado potato beetle leptinotarsa decemlineata (say) 5.4 191 Common green lacewing chrysoperla carnea (stephens) 9.4 331 Corn earworm heliothis zea (boddie) 17.1 596 Corn leaf aphid rhopalosiphum maidis (fitch) 8.3 299 Corn rootworms diabrotica species 10.6 359 Cottony cushion scale icerya purchasi maskell 9.1 312 Desert locust schistocerca gregaria (forskgål) 5.6 196 Emerald ash borer agrilus planipennis (fairmaire) 3.2 115 European corn borer ostrinia nubilalis (hübner) 17.2 599 Face fly musca autumnalis degeer 6.3 217 Fall armyworm spodoptera frugiperda (smith) 5.8 198 Fruit fly drosophila melanogaster (meigen) 14.3 510 Forest tent caterpillar malacosoma disstria (hübner) 5.3 188 German cockroach blattella germanica (linnaeus) 8.1 286 Glassywinged sharpshooter homalodisca coagulata (say) 15.2 537 Green cloverworm hypena scabra (fabricius) 8.4 300 Green stink bug acrosternum hilare (say) 4.3 152 Gypsy moth lymantria dispar (linnaeus) 6.2 211 Hessian fly mayetiola destructor (say) 12.2 448 Honey bee apis mellifera linnaeus 4.1 145 Horn fly haematobia irritans (linnaeus) 14.5 521 Horse flies/deer flies tabanus and chrysops species 6.4 225 House fly musca domestica linnaeus 14.2 509 Imported fire ants solenopsis richteri forel 6.1 210 solenopsis invicta buren Japanese beetle popillia japonica newman 9.3 322 Lady beetles many coccinellid species 9.2 319 Mediterranean fruit fly ceratitis capitata (wiedemann) 14.4 520 Mexican bean beetle epilachna varivestis mulsant 9.5 334 Monarch butterfly danaus plexippus (linnaeus) 5.5 195 Multicolored asian harmonia axyridis (pallas) 3.3 117 lady beetle Native elm bark beetle hylurgopinus opaculus (leconte) 10.3 346 Painted lady butterfly vanessa cardui (linnaeus) 5.9 201 Pink bollworm pectinophora gossypiella (saunders) 14.6 522 Potato leafhopper empoasca fabae (harris) 7.3 275 Redlegged grasshopper melanoplus femurrubrum (degeer) 5.1 174 Russian wheat aphid diuraphis noxia (mordvilko) 15.3 550 San jose scale quadraspidiotus perniciosus (comstock) 17.3 610 Screwworm cochliomyia hominivorax (coquerel) 14.1 504 Seedcorn maggot delia platura (meigen) 4.5 170 Silkworm bombyx mori (linnaeus) 13.1 486 Soybean aphid aphis glycines matsumura 3.1 111 Soybean looper pseudoplusia includens (walker) 7.2 275 Spotted alfalfa aphid therioaphis maculata (buckton) 12.3 467 Spruce budworm choristoneura fumiferana (clemens) 5.2 185 Sweetpotato whitefly bemisia tabaci gennadius 15.4 551 Tsetse flies glossina species 4.2 151 Twospotted spider mite tetranychus urticae koch 16.1 579 Velvetbean caterpillar anticarsia gemmatalis (hübner) 5.7 197 Wireworms numerous species 10.7 360 Woolly apple aphid eriosoma lanigerum (hausmann) 12.1 437 ER -